ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION Contents Part 1 Principles of measurement 1 Introduction to measurement Measurement units Measurement system applications Elements of a measurement system Choosing appropriate measuring instruments 2 Instrument types and performance characteristics Review of instrument types Active and passive instruments Null-type and deflection-type instruments Analogue and digital instruments Indicating instruments and instruments with a signal output Smart and non-smart instruments Static characteristics of instruments Accuracy and inaccuracy Precision/repeatability/reproducibility Tolerance Range or span Linearity Sensitivity of disturbance Hysteresis effects Dead space Dynamic characteristics of instruments Zero order instrument First order instrument Second order instrument Necessity for calibration Self-test questions 3 Errors during the measurement process Introduction Sources of systematic error Errors due to environmental inputs Wear in instrument components Connecting leads Reduction of systematic errors Careful instrument design Method of opposing inputs High-gain feedback Calibration Manual correction of output reading Intelligent instruments Quantification of systematic errors Random errors Statistical analysis of measurements subject to random errors Graphical data analysis techniques-frequency Distributions Aggregation of measurement system errors Combined effect of systematic and random errors Aggregation of errors from separate measurement System components Total error when combining multiple measurements Self-test questions References and further reading 4 Calibration of measuring sensors and instruments Principles of calibration Control of calibration environment Calibration chain and traceability Calibration records References and further reading 5 Measurement noise and signal processing Sources of measurement noise Inductive coupling Capacitive coupling Noise due to multiple earths Noise in the form of voltage transient Thermoelectric potentials Shot noise Electrochemical potentials Techniques for reducing measurement noise Location and design of signal wires Earthling Shielding Other techniques Introduction to signal processing Analogue signal filtering Passive analogue filters Active analogue filters Other analogue signal processing operations Signal amplification Signal attenuation Differential amplification Signal linearization Bias removal Signal integration Voltage follower Voltage comparator Phase-sensitive detector Lock-in amplifier Signal addition Signal multiplication Digital signal processing Signal sampling Sample and hold circuit Analogue-to-do-digital converters Digital-to-analogue conversion Digital filtering Autocorrelation Other digital signal processing operations References and further reading 6 Electrical indicating and test instruments Digital meters Voltage-to-time conversion digital voltmeter Potentiometric digital voltmeter Dual-slope integration digital voltmeter Voltage-to-frequency conversion digital voltmeter Digital millimeter Analogue meters Moving-coil meters Moving –iron meter Electrodynamics meters Clamp-on meters Analogue multimeter Measuring high-frequency signals Thermocouple meter Electronic analogue voltmeters Calculation of meter outputs for non-standard Waveforms Cathode ray oscilloscope Cathode ray tube Channel Single-ended input Differential input Differential input Timebase circuit Vertical sensitivity control Display position control Digital storage oscilloscopes References and further reading 7 Variable conversion elements Bridge circuits Null-type, d.c. bridge Deflection-type d.c. bridge Error analysis A.c bridges Resistance measurement D.c bridge circuit Voltmeter-ammeter method Resistance-substitution method Use of the digital voltmeter to measure resistance The ohmmeter Codes for resistor values Inductance measurement Capacitance measurement Alphanumeric codes for capacitor values Current measurement Frequency measurement Digital counter-timers Phase-locked loop Cathode ray oscilloscope The wien bridge Phase measurement Electronic counter-timer X-Y plotter Oscilloscope Phase-sensitive detector Self-test questions References and further reading 8 Signal transmission Electrical transmission Transmission as varying voltages Current loop transmission Transmission using an a.c. carrier Pneumatic transmission Fibre-optic transmission Principles of fibre optics Transmission characteristics Multiplexing schemes Optical wireless telemetry Radio telemetry Digital transmission protocols References and further reading 9 Digital computation and intelligent devices Principles of digital computation Computer operation Interfacing Practical considerations in adding computers to Measurement systems Intelligent devices Intelligent instruments Smart sensors Smart transmitters Communication with intelligent devices Computation in intelligent devices Future trends in intelligent devices Self-test questions References and further reading 10 Instrumentation/computer networks Introduction Serial communication lines Asynchronous transmission Parallel data bus Local area networks Star networks Ring and bus networks Gateways Hart Digital fieldbuses Communication protocols for very large systems Protocol standardization Future development of networks References and further reading 11 Display, recording and presentation of measurement data Display of measurement signals Electronic output displays Computer monitor displays Recording of measurement data Mechanical chart recorders Ultra-violet recorders Fibre-optic recorders Hybrid chart recorders Magnetic tape recorders Digital recorders Storage oscilloscopes Presentation of data Tabular data presentation Graphical presentation of data Self-test questions References and further reading 12 Measurement reliability and safety systems Reliability Principles of reliability Laws of reliability in complex systems Improving measurement system reliability Software systems Introduction to safety systems Operation of safety systems Design of a safety system Self-test questions References and further reading Part-2 Measurement sensors and instruments 13 Sensor technologies Capacitive and resistive sensors Magnetic sensors Half –effect sensors Piezoelectric transducers Strain gauges Piezoresistive sensors Strain gauges Piezoresistive sensors Optical sensors Optical sensors Intrinsic sensors Extrinsic sensors Distributed sensors Ultrasonic transducers Transmission speed Direction of travel of ultrasound waves Directionality of ultrasound waves Relationship between wavelength, frequency and Directionality of ultrasound waves Attenuation of ultrasound waves Ultrasound as a range sensor Use of ultrasound in tracking 3D object motion Effect of noise in ultrasonic measurement systems Exploiting Doppler shift in ultrasound transmission Ultrasonic imaging Nuclear sensors Micro sensors References and further reading 14 Temperature measurement Principles of temperature measurement Thermoelectric effect sensors Thermocouple tables Non-zero reference junction temperature Thermocouple protection Thermocouple manufacture The thermopile Digital thermometer The continuous thermocouple Varying resistance devices Resistance thermometers Thermistors Semiconductor devices Radiation thermometers Optical pyrometers Radiation pyrometers Thermography Thermal expansion methods Liquid-in-glass thermometers Bimetallic thermometer Pressure thermometers Quartz thermometers Fibre-optic temperature sensors Acoustic thermometers Colour indicators Change of state of materials Intelligent temperature-measuring instruments Choice between temperature transducers Self-test questions References and further reading 15 Pressure measurement Diaphragms Capacitive pressure sensor Fibre-optic pressure sensors Bellows Bourdon tube Manometers Resonant-wire devices Dead-weight gauge Special measurement devices for low pressures High-pressure measurement Intelligent pressure transducers Selection of pressure sensors 16 Flow measurements Mass flow rate Conveyor-based methods Coriolis flow meter Thermal mass flow measurement Joint measurement of volume flow rate and fluid Density Volume flow rate Differential pressure meters Variable area flow meters Positive displacement flowmeters Turbine meters Electromagnetic flowmeters Vortex-shedding flowmeters Ultrasonic flow meters Other types of flow meter for measuring volume Flow rate Intelligent flow meters Choice between flow meters for particular applications References and further reading 17 Level measurement Dipsticks Float systems Pressure-measuring devices Capacitive devices Ultrasonic level gauge Radar methods Radiation methods Other techniques Vibrating level sensor Hot-wire elements/carbon resistor elements Laser methods Fibre-optic level sensors Thermography Intelligent level-measuring instruments Choice between different level sensors References and further reading 18 Mass force and torque measurement Mass measurement Electronic load cell Pneumatic/hydraulic load cells Intelligent load cells Mass-balance instruments Spring balance Force measurement Use of accelerometers Vibrating wire sensor Torque measurement Reaction forces in shaft bearings Prony brake Measurement of induced strain Optical torque measurement 19 Translational motion transducers Displacement The resistive potentiometer Linear variable differential transformer Variable capacitance transducers Variable inductance transducers Strain gauge Piezoelectric transducers Nozzle flapper Other methods of measuring small displacements Measurement of large displacements Proximity sensors Selection of translational measurement transducers Velocity Differentiation of displacement measurements Integration of the output of an accelerometer Conversion to rotational velocity Acceleration Selection of accelerometers Vibration Nature of vibration Vibration measurement Shock 20 20 Rotational motion transducers Rotational displacement Circular and helical potentiometers Rotational differential transformer Incremental shaft encoders Coded-disc shaft encoders The resolver The synchro The induction potentiometer The rotary inductosyn Gyroscopes Choice between rotational displacement transducers Rotational velocity Digital tachometers Stroboscopic methods Analogue tachometers Mechanical flyball The rate gyroscope Differentiation of angular displacement measurements Integration of the output from an accelerometer Choice between rotational velocity transducers Measurement of rotational velocity transducers Measurement of rotational acceleration References and further reading 21 Summary of other measurements Dimensions measurement Rules and tapes Calipers Micrometers Gauge blocks and length bars Height and depth measurement Angle measurement Flatness measurement Volume measurement Viscosity measurement Capillary and tube viscometers Falling body viscometer Rotational viscometers Moisture measurement Industrial moisture measurement techniques Laboratory techniques for moisture measurement Humidity measurement Sound measurement pH measurement The glass electrode Other methods of pH measurement Gas sensing and analysis Catalytic sensors Paper tape sensors Liquid electrolyte electrochemical cells Solid –state electrochemical cells Catalytic gate FETs Semiconductor sensors Organic sensors Piezoelectric devices Infra-red absorption Mass spectrometers Gas chromatography References and further reading
ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION
Contents
Part 1 Principles of measurement
1 Introduction to measurement
Measurement units
Measurement system applications
Elements of a measurement system
Choosing appropriate measuring instruments
2 Instrument types and performance characteristics
Review of instrument types
Active and passive instruments
Null-type and deflection-type instruments
Analogue and digital instruments
Indicating instruments and instruments with a signal output
Smart and non-smart instruments
Static characteristics of instruments
Accuracy and inaccuracy
Precision/repeatability/reproducibility
Tolerance
Range or span
Linearity
Sensitivity of disturbance
Hysteresis effects
Dead space
Dynamic characteristics of instruments
Zero order instrument
First order instrument
Second order instrument
Necessity for calibration
Self-test questions
3 Errors during the measurement process
Introduction
Sources of systematic error
Errors due to environmental inputs
Wear in instrument components
Connecting leads
Reduction of systematic errors
Careful instrument design
Method of opposing inputs
High-gain feedback
Calibration
Manual correction of output reading
Intelligent instruments
Quantification of systematic errors
Random errors
Statistical analysis of measurements subject to random errors
Graphical data analysis techniques-frequency
Distributions
Aggregation of measurement system errors
Combined effect of systematic and random errors
Aggregation of errors from separate measurement
System components
Total error when combining multiple measurements
References and further reading
4 Calibration of measuring sensors and instruments
Principles of calibration
Control of calibration environment
Calibration chain and traceability
Calibration records
5 Measurement noise and signal processing
Sources of measurement noise
Inductive coupling
Capacitive coupling
Noise due to multiple earths
Noise in the form of voltage transient
Thermoelectric potentials
Shot noise
Electrochemical potentials
Techniques for reducing measurement noise
Location and design of signal wires
Earthling
Shielding
Other techniques
Introduction to signal processing
Analogue signal filtering
Passive analogue filters
Active analogue filters
Other analogue signal processing operations
Signal amplification
Signal attenuation
Differential amplification
Signal linearization
Bias removal
Signal integration
Voltage follower
Voltage comparator
Phase-sensitive detector
Lock-in amplifier
Signal addition
Signal multiplication
Digital signal processing
Signal sampling
Sample and hold circuit
Analogue-to-do-digital converters
Digital-to-analogue conversion
Digital filtering
Autocorrelation
Other digital signal processing operations
6 Electrical indicating and test instruments
Digital meters
Voltage-to-time conversion digital voltmeter
Potentiometric digital voltmeter
Dual-slope integration digital voltmeter
Voltage-to-frequency conversion digital voltmeter
Digital millimeter
Analogue meters
Moving-coil meters
Moving –iron meter
Electrodynamics meters
Clamp-on meters
Analogue multimeter
Measuring high-frequency signals
Thermocouple meter
Electronic analogue voltmeters
Calculation of meter outputs for non-standard
Waveforms
Cathode ray oscilloscope
Cathode ray tube
Channel
Single-ended input
Differential input
Timebase circuit
Vertical sensitivity control
Display position control
Digital storage oscilloscopes
7 Variable conversion elements
Bridge circuits
Null-type, d.c. bridge
Deflection-type d.c. bridge
Error analysis
A.c bridges
Resistance measurement
D.c bridge circuit
Voltmeter-ammeter method
Resistance-substitution method
Use of the digital voltmeter to measure resistance
The ohmmeter
Codes for resistor values
Inductance measurement
Capacitance measurement
Alphanumeric codes for capacitor values
Current measurement
Frequency measurement
Digital counter-timers
Phase-locked loop
The wien bridge
Phase measurement
Electronic counter-timer
X-Y plotter
Oscilloscope
8 Signal transmission
Electrical transmission
Transmission as varying voltages
Current loop transmission
Transmission using an a.c. carrier
Pneumatic transmission
Fibre-optic transmission
Principles of fibre optics
Transmission characteristics
Multiplexing schemes
Optical wireless telemetry
Radio telemetry
Digital transmission protocols
9 Digital computation and intelligent devices
Principles of digital computation
Computer operation
Interfacing
Practical considerations in adding computers to
Measurement systems
Intelligent devices
Smart sensors
Smart transmitters
Communication with intelligent devices
Computation in intelligent devices
Future trends in intelligent devices
10 Instrumentation/computer networks
Serial communication lines
Asynchronous transmission
Parallel data bus
Local area networks
Star networks
Ring and bus networks
Gateways
Hart
Digital fieldbuses
Communication protocols for very large systems
Protocol standardization
Future development of networks
11 Display, recording and presentation of measurement data
Display of measurement signals
Electronic output displays
Computer monitor displays
Recording of measurement data
Mechanical chart recorders
Ultra-violet recorders
Fibre-optic recorders
Hybrid chart recorders
Magnetic tape recorders
Digital recorders
Storage oscilloscopes
Presentation of data
Tabular data presentation
Graphical presentation of data
12 Measurement reliability and safety systems
Reliability
Principles of reliability
Laws of reliability in complex systems
Improving measurement system reliability
Software systems
Introduction to safety systems
Operation of safety systems
Design of a safety system
Part-2 Measurement sensors and instruments
13 Sensor technologies
Capacitive and resistive sensors
Magnetic sensors
Half –effect sensors
Piezoelectric transducers
Strain gauges
Piezoresistive sensors
Optical sensors
Intrinsic sensors
Extrinsic sensors
Distributed sensors
Ultrasonic transducers
Transmission speed
Direction of travel of ultrasound waves
Directionality of ultrasound waves
Relationship between wavelength, frequency and
Attenuation of ultrasound waves
Ultrasound as a range sensor
Use of ultrasound in tracking 3D object motion
Effect of noise in ultrasonic measurement systems
Exploiting Doppler shift in ultrasound transmission
Ultrasonic imaging
Nuclear sensors
Micro sensors
14 Temperature measurement
Principles of temperature measurement
Thermoelectric effect sensors
Thermocouple tables
Non-zero reference junction temperature
Thermocouple protection
Thermocouple manufacture
The thermopile
Digital thermometer
The continuous thermocouple
Varying resistance devices
Resistance thermometers
Thermistors
Semiconductor devices
Radiation thermometers
Optical pyrometers
Radiation pyrometers
Thermography
Thermal expansion methods
Liquid-in-glass thermometers
Bimetallic thermometer
Pressure thermometers
Quartz thermometers
Fibre-optic temperature sensors
Acoustic thermometers
Colour indicators
Change of state of materials
Intelligent temperature-measuring instruments
Choice between temperature transducers
15 Pressure measurement
Diaphragms
Capacitive pressure sensor
Fibre-optic pressure sensors
Bellows
Bourdon tube
Manometers
Resonant-wire devices
Dead-weight gauge
Special measurement devices for low pressures
High-pressure measurement
Intelligent pressure transducers
Selection of pressure sensors
16 Flow measurements
Mass flow rate
Conveyor-based methods
Coriolis flow meter
Thermal mass flow measurement
Joint measurement of volume flow rate and fluid
Density
Volume flow rate
Differential pressure meters
Variable area flow meters
Positive displacement flowmeters
Turbine meters
Electromagnetic flowmeters
Vortex-shedding flowmeters
Ultrasonic flow meters
Other types of flow meter for measuring volume
Flow rate
Intelligent flow meters
Choice between flow meters for particular applications
17 Level measurement
Dipsticks
Float systems
Pressure-measuring devices
Capacitive devices
Ultrasonic level gauge
Radar methods
Radiation methods
Vibrating level sensor
Hot-wire elements/carbon resistor elements
Laser methods
Fibre-optic level sensors
Intelligent level-measuring instruments
Choice between different level sensors
18 Mass force and torque measurement
Mass measurement
Electronic load cell
Pneumatic/hydraulic load cells
Intelligent load cells
Mass-balance instruments
Spring balance
Force measurement
Use of accelerometers
Vibrating wire sensor
Torque measurement
Reaction forces in shaft bearings
Prony brake
Measurement of induced strain
Optical torque measurement
19 Translational motion transducers
Displacement
The resistive potentiometer
Linear variable differential transformer
Variable capacitance transducers
Variable inductance transducers
Strain gauge
Nozzle flapper
Other methods of measuring small displacements
Measurement of large displacements
Proximity sensors
Selection of translational measurement transducers
Velocity
Differentiation of displacement measurements
Integration of the output of an accelerometer
Conversion to rotational velocity
Acceleration
Selection of accelerometers
Vibration
Nature of vibration
Vibration measurement
Shock
20
20 Rotational motion transducers
Rotational displacement
Circular and helical potentiometers
Rotational differential transformer
Incremental shaft encoders
Coded-disc shaft encoders
The resolver
The synchro
The induction potentiometer
The rotary inductosyn
Gyroscopes
Choice between rotational displacement transducers
Rotational velocity
Digital tachometers
Stroboscopic methods
Analogue tachometers
Mechanical flyball
The rate gyroscope
Differentiation of angular displacement measurements
Integration of the output from an accelerometer
Choice between rotational velocity transducers
Measurement of rotational velocity transducers
Measurement of rotational acceleration
21 Summary of other measurements
Dimensions measurement
Rules and tapes
Calipers
Micrometers
Gauge blocks and length bars
Height and depth measurement
Angle measurement
Flatness measurement
Volume measurement
Viscosity measurement
Capillary and tube viscometers
Falling body viscometer
Rotational viscometers
Moisture measurement
Industrial moisture measurement techniques
Laboratory techniques for moisture measurement
Humidity measurement
Sound measurement
pH measurement
The glass electrode
Other methods of pH measurement
Gas sensing and analysis
Catalytic sensors
Paper tape sensors
Liquid electrolyte electrochemical cells
Solid –state electrochemical cells
Catalytic gate FETs
Semiconductor sensors
Organic sensors
Piezoelectric devices
Infra-red absorption
Mass spectrometers
Gas chromatography
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