PRINCIPLS OF FOOD TECHNOLOGY Contents Acknowledgements Glossary List of symbols List of acronyms Introduction The food industry today About this book Note on the second edition PART I BASIC PRINCIPLES 1 Properties of foods and processing theory 1 Density and specific gravity Viscosity Surface activity Rheology and texture Material transfer Fluid flow Fluid flow through fluidised beds Heat transfer Energy balances Mechanisms of heat transfer Sources of heat and methods of application to foods Energy conservation Effect of heat on micro-organisms Effect of heat on nutritional and sensory characteristics Water activity Effect of a on foods Effects of processing on sensory characteristics of foods Texture Taste, flavour and aroma Colour Effects of processing on nutritional properties Food safety, good manufacturing practice and quality assurance HACCP Hurdle technology Acknowledgements . References . 2 .Process control Automatic control Sensors Controllers Computer-based systems Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) . Types of control systems Software developments Neural networks Acknowledgements References PART II AMBIENT-TEMPERATURE PROCESSING 3. Raw material preparation Cleaning Wet cleaning . Dry cleaning Removing contaminants and foreign bodies Sorting Shape and size sorting Colour sorting Weight sorting Grading Peeling Flash steam peeling Knife peeling Abrasion peeling Caustic peeling Flame peeling Acknowledgements References 4. Size reduction Size reduction of solid foods Theory Equipment Effect on foods Size reduction in liquid foods (emulsification and homogenisation) Theory Equipment Effect on foods Acknowledgements References 5 .Mixing and forming Mixing Theory of solids mixing Theory of liquids mixing Equipment Effect on foods Forming Bread moulders Pie and biscuit formers Confectionery moulders Acknowledgements References 6 .Separation and concentration of food components Centrifugation Theory Equipment Filtration Theory Equipment Expression Theory Equipment Extraction using solvents Theory Equipment Membrane concentration (hyperfiltration and ultrafiltration) Theory . Equipment Effect on foods Acknowledgements References 7. Fermentation and enzyme technology Fermentation Theory Types of food fermentations Equipment Effect on foods Enzyme technology Enzyme production from micro-organisms Application of enzymes in food processing Acknowledgements References 8. Irradiation Theory Equipment Measurement of radiation dose Dose distribution Effect on micro-organisms Applications Sterilisation (or ‘radappertisation’) Reduction of pathogens (or ‘radicidation’) Prolonging shelf life (or ‘radurisation) Control of ripening Disinfestation Inhibition of sprouting Effect on foods Induced radioactivity Radiolytic products Nutritional and sensory value Effect on packaging Detection of irradiated foods Physical methods Chemical methods Biological methods Acknowledgement References 9. Processing using electric fields, high hydrostatic pressure, light or Ultrasound Pulsed electric field processing Theory Equipment High pressure processing Theory Processing and equipment Effect on micro-organisms, enzymes and food components Processing using pulsed light Theory Equipment and operation Effect on micro-organisms and foods Processing using ultrasound Theory Application to processing Other methods References PART III PROCESSING BY APPLICATION OF HEAT A. Heat processing using steam or water 10. Blanching Theory Equipment Steam blanchers Hot-water blanchers Effect on foods Nutrients Colour and flavor Texture Acknowledgement References 11. Pasteurisation Theory Equipment Pasteurisation of packaged foods Pasteurisation of unpackaged liquids Effect on foods Colour, flavour and aroma Vitamin loss Acknowledgements References 12.. Heat sterilization In-container sterilisation Theory Retorting (heat processing) Equipment Ultra high-temperature (UHT)/aseptic processes Theory Processing Equipment Effect on foods Colour Flavour and aroma Texture or viscosity Nutritive value Acknowledgements References 13. Evaporation and distillation Evaporation Theory Equipment Effect on foods Distillation Acknowledgements References 14. Extrusion Theory Rheological properties of the food Operating characteristics Equipment Single-screw extruders Twin-screw extruders Ancillary equipment Applications Cold extrusion Extrusion cooking Effect on foods Sensory characteristics Nutritional value Acknowledgements References B. Heat processing using hot air 15. Dehydration Theory Drying using heated air Drying using heated surfaces Equipment Hot-air driers Heated-surface (or contact) driers Effect on foods Texture Flavour and aroma Colour Nutritional value Rehydration Acknowledgements References 16. Baking and roasting Theory Equipment Direct heating ovens Indirect heating ovens Batch ovens Continuous and semi-continuous ovens Effect on foods Texture Flavour, aroma and colour Nutritional value Acknowledgements References C Heat processing using hot oils 17Frying Theory Shallow (or contact) frying Deep-fat frying Equipment Effect on foods Effect of heat on oil Effect of heat on fried foods Acknowledgements References D. Heat processing by direct and radiated energy 18. Dielectric, ohmic and infrared heating Dielectric heating Theory Equipment Applications Effect on foods Ohmic heating Theory Equipment and applications Infrared heating Theory Equipment Effect on foods Acknowledgements References PART IV .PROCESSING BY THE REMOVAL OF HEAT 19. Chilling Theory Fresh foods Processed foods Cook – chill systems Equipment Mechanical refrigerators Cryogenic chilling Chill storage Control of storage conditions Effect on foods Acknowledgements References 20. Controlled- or modified-atmosphere storage and packaging Modified- and controlled-atmosphere storage (MAS and CAS) Modified-atmosphere packaging MAP for fresh foods MAP for processed foods Packaging materials for MAP Active packaging systems Acknowledgement References 21 Freezing Theory Ice crystal formation Solute concentration Volume changes Calculation of freezing time Equipment Cooled-air freezers Cooled-liquid freezers ooled-surface freezers Cryogenic freezers Changes in foods Effect of freezing Effects of frozen storage Thawing Acknowledgements References 22. Freeze drying and freeze concentration Freeze drying (lyophilisation) Theory Equipment Effect on foods Freeze concentration Theory Equipment Acknowledgements References PART V. POST-PROCESSING OPERATIONS 23. Coating or enrobing Coating materials Batters, powders and breadcrumbs Chocolate and compound coatings Enrobers Dusting or breading Pan coating Hard coatings Soft coatings Chocolate coating Acknowledgements References 24. Packaging Theory Light Heat Moisture and gases Micro-organisms, insects, animals and soils Mechanical strength Types of packaging materials Textiles and wood Metal Glass Flexible films Rigid and semi-rigid plastic containers Paper and board Combined packaging systems Active packaging technologies Printing Bar codes and other markings Interactions between packaging and foods Environmental considerations Packaging costs Manufacture of packaging materials Distribution of packaging materials and ingredients for food production Distribution to retailers and consumers Consumer recycling Acknowledgements References 25. Filling and sealing of containers Rigid and semi-rigid containers Filling Sealing Flexible containers Types of sealer Form – fill – seal (FFS) equipment Form – Fill seal (FFS) equipment Tamper-evident packaging Labelling Checkweighing Metal detection Acknowledgements References 26. Materials handling, storage and distribution Materials handling Handling equipment for raw materials and ingredients Handling equipment for processing Waste management and disposal Storage Distribution Acknowledgements References Appendices A Vitamins in foods B Nutritional and functional roles of minerals in foods C EEC permitted food additives D Units and dimensions .
PRINCIPLS OF FOOD TECHNOLOGY
Contents
Acknowledgements
Glossary
List of symbols
List of acronyms
Introduction
The food industry today
About this book
Note on the second edition
PART I BASIC PRINCIPLES
1
Properties of foods and processing theory
Density and specific
gravity
Viscosity
Surface activity
Rheology and texture
Material transfer
Fluid flow
Fluid flow through fluidised beds
Heat transfer
Energy balances
Mechanisms of heat transfer
Sources of heat and methods of application to foods
Energy conservation
Effect of heat on micro-organisms
Effect of heat on nutritional and sensory characteristics
Water activity
Effect of a on foods
Effects of processing on sensory characteristics of foods
Texture
Taste, flavour and aroma
Colour
Effects of processing on nutritional properties
Food safety, good manufacturing practice and quality assurance
HACCP
Hurdle technology
.
References
2 .Process control
Automatic control
Sensors
Controllers
Computer-based systems
Programmable logic controllers (PLCs)
Types of control systems
Software developments
Neural networks
PART II
AMBIENT-TEMPERATURE PROCESSING
3. Raw material preparation
Cleaning
Wet cleaning
Dry cleaning
Removing contaminants and foreign bodies
Sorting
Shape and size sorting
Colour sorting
Weight sorting
Grading
Peeling
Flash steam peeling
Knife peeling
Abrasion peeling
Caustic peeling
Flame peeling
4. Size reduction
Size reduction of solid foods
Theory
Equipment
Effect on foods
Size reduction in liquid foods (emulsification and homogenisation)
5 .Mixing and forming
Mixing
Theory of solids mixing
Theory of liquids mixing
Forming
Bread moulders
Pie and biscuit formers
Confectionery moulders
6 .Separation and concentration of food components
Centrifugation
Filtration
Expression
Extraction using solvents
Membrane concentration (hyperfiltration and ultrafiltration)
7. Fermentation and enzyme technology
Fermentation
Types of food fermentations
Enzyme technology
Enzyme production from micro-organisms
Application of enzymes in food processing
8. Irradiation
Measurement of radiation dose
Dose distribution
Effect on micro-organisms
Applications
Sterilisation (or ‘radappertisation’)
Reduction of pathogens (or ‘radicidation’)
Prolonging shelf life (or ‘radurisation)
Control of ripening
Disinfestation
Inhibition of sprouting
Induced radioactivity
Radiolytic products
Nutritional and sensory value
Effect on packaging
Detection of irradiated foods
Physical methods
Chemical methods
Biological methods
Acknowledgement
9. Processing using electric fields, high hydrostatic pressure, light or
Ultrasound
Pulsed electric field processing
High pressure processing
Processing and equipment
Effect on micro-organisms, enzymes and food components
Processing using pulsed light
Equipment and operation
Effect on micro-organisms and foods
Processing using ultrasound
Application to processing
Other methods
PART III
PROCESSING BY APPLICATION OF HEAT
A. Heat processing using steam or water
10. Blanching
Steam blanchers
Hot-water blanchers
Nutrients
Colour and flavor
11. Pasteurisation
Pasteurisation of packaged foods
Pasteurisation of unpackaged liquids
Colour, flavour and aroma
Vitamin loss
12.. Heat sterilization
In-container sterilisation
Retorting (heat processing)
Ultra high-temperature (UHT)/aseptic processes
Processing
Flavour and aroma
Texture or viscosity
Nutritive value
13. Evaporation and distillation
Evaporation
Distillation
14. Extrusion
Rheological properties of the food
Operating characteristics
Single-screw extruders
Twin-screw extruders
Ancillary equipment
Cold extrusion
Extrusion cooking
Sensory characteristics
Nutritional value
B. Heat processing using hot air
15. Dehydration
Drying using heated air
Drying using heated surfaces
Hot-air driers
Heated-surface (or contact) driers
Rehydration
16. Baking and roasting
Direct heating ovens
Indirect heating ovens
Batch ovens
Continuous and semi-continuous ovens
Flavour, aroma and colour
C Heat processing using hot oils
17Frying
Shallow (or contact) frying
Deep-fat frying
Effect of heat on oil
Effect of heat on fried foods
D. Heat processing by direct and radiated energy
18. Dielectric, ohmic and infrared heating
Dielectric heating
Ohmic heating
Equipment and applications
Infrared heating
PART IV .PROCESSING BY THE REMOVAL OF HEAT
19. Chilling
Fresh foods
Processed foods
Cook
–
chill systems
Mechanical refrigerators
Cryogenic chilling
Chill storage
Control of storage conditions
20. Controlled- or modified-atmosphere storage and packaging
Modified- and controlled-atmosphere storage (MAS and CAS)
Modified-atmosphere packaging
MAP for fresh foods
MAP for processed foods
Packaging materials for MAP
Active packaging systems
21 Freezing
Ice crystal formation
Solute concentration
Volume changes
Calculation of freezing time
Cooled-air freezers
Cooled-liquid freezers
ooled-surface freezers
Cryogenic freezers
Changes in foods
Effect of freezing
Effects of frozen storage
Thawing
22. Freeze drying and freeze concentration
Freeze drying (lyophilisation)
Freeze concentration
PART V. POST-PROCESSING OPERATIONS
23. Coating or enrobing
Coating materials
Batters, powders and breadcrumbs
Chocolate and compound coatings
Enrobers
Dusting or breading
Pan coating
Hard coatings
Soft coatings
Chocolate coating
24. Packaging
Light
Heat
Moisture and gases
Micro-organisms, insects, animals and soils
Mechanical strength
Types of packaging materials
Textiles and wood
Metal
Glass
Flexible films
Rigid and semi-rigid plastic containers
Paper and board
Combined packaging systems
Active packaging technologies
Printing
Bar codes and other markings
Interactions between packaging and foods
Environmental considerations
Packaging costs
Manufacture of packaging materials
Distribution of packaging materials and ingredients for food
production
Distribution to retailers and consumers
Consumer recycling
25. Filling and sealing of containers
Rigid and semi-rigid containers
Filling
Sealing
Flexible containers
Types of sealer
Form
fill
seal (FFS) equipment
Fill seal (FFS) equipment
Tamper-evident packaging
Labelling
Checkweighing
Metal detection
26. Materials handling, storage and distribution
Materials handling
Handling equipment for raw materials and ingredients
Handling equipment for processing
Waste management and disposal
Storage
Distribution
Appendices
A Vitamins in foods
B Nutritional and functional roles of minerals in foods
C EEC permitted food additives
D Units and dimensions
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