SURVEYING & LEVELING Contents 1.Introduction Plans and maps Applications of surveying Primary division in surveying Classification of surveying Measurements Units of measurements Scales Types of graphical scales Vernier scale Special forms of verniers Shrunk scale Methods of locating a point in plain Survey with respect to two reference points Principles of surveying Survey of India and topological maps Phases of works in surveying Questions 2 Errors in surveying Types of errors Sources of errors Most probable value of accidental error Errors in the computed quantities Accuracy in measurement Relative accuracy between linear and Angular measurements Significant figures and rounding off figures Questions 3 Measurement of horizontal distances using chain and tape Approximate methods of distance measurements Measurements by chaining Types of chains Advantages and disadvantages of Chain over steel band Testing and adjustment of chains Tapes Accessories required for horizontal Measurements Ranging a survey line Chaining a horizontal line Measurement of distances on Sloping ground Precise measurement/base line Measurement Errors in chaining Chain and tape corrections Questions 4 Chain surveying Testing a triangle for its condition Network of triangles Selection of stations Offsets Setting out perpendicular offsets Allowable length of offset Equipment required for chain survey Field work Plotting a chain survey Conventional symbols and colours Problems in chaining Obstacles in chaining Cross staff survey Traversing with chain and type only Questions 5 Angle and direction measurements with compass Compass Differences between prismatic compass And surveyor’s compass Working and use of compass Magnetic bearing and true bearing Whole circle bearing and quadrantal bearing system Magnetic dip Magnetic declination Fore bearing and back bearing Computation of angles from bearings Computation of bearings if bearing Of a line and included angles are given Local attraction Personal errors Testing and adjusting the compass Questions 6 Compass surveying Accessories for compass survey Fiels work Check in compass survey Plotting Closing error and its adjustment Errors in compass survey Limits of precision Omitted measurements Questions 7 Plane table surveying Plane table and its accessories Working operations Methods of plane tabling Required accuracy in centring Errors in plane table surveying Advantages and limitations of plane table survey 8 Levelling Definition of basic terms used in leveling Methods of leveling Leveling instruments Types of levels Tripod for the level Leveling staff Relative merits of self reading and target staffs Working principle of telescope Parts of telescope Advantages and disadvantages of internal Focusing telescope Fundamental axes of a level Temporary adjustments of a level Principles of direct leveling Terms used in leveling Types of leveling Simple of leveling Simple leveling Differential leveling Fly leveling \profile leveling Cross-sectioning Hand signals during leveling Effect of curvature Effects of refraction Distance of visible horizon Balancing backsights and force sights Reciprocal leveling Difficulties in leveling Level tube and its sensitivity Errors in leveling Degree of precision Barometric leveling Hypsometry Additional problems Questions 9 Contouring Contour intervals Characteristics of contours Methods of contouring Direct method of contouring Indirect contouring Interpolation of contours Drawing contours Contour gradient Uses of contour maps Questions 10 Theodolite surveying Main parts of a vernier theodolite Technical terms associated with Measurement with theodolite Fundamental axes of theodolite Temporary adjustments of a theodolite Measurement of horizontal angle Measurement of horizontal angle by Repetition method Measurement of horizontal angle by Method of reiteration Measurement of vertical angle Field operations with theodolite Theodlite traversing Plotting and adjusting chosing error Trigonometric leveling Errors in theodolite surveying Good practices in theodolite survey Additional problems on theodolite survey Questions 11 Trigonometric leveling Base of the object accessible Base of object inaccessible-single plane Method possible Base of the object inaccessible –double Plane method is necessary Height of an elevated object above The ground if its base is also visible Questions 12 permanent adjustment of dumpy level and theodolite Required permanent adjustments in dumpy level First adjustment of dumpy level Adjustment of dumpy level Adjustment of cross hair ring Third adjustment of dumpy level Adjustment of line of sight /collimation Required permanent adjustment in theodolite First adjustment of theodolite Adjustment of plate level Second adjustment of theodolite Adjustment of horizontal axis Third adjustment (adjustment of cross hairs) Fourth adjustment and fifth adjustments Adjustment of altitude level and vertical index frame Questions 13 Computation of areas Methods of computation of areas Computation areas from form field notes Computation of areas of regular figures Areas from offsets at regular intervals Areas from offsets at irregular intervals Computation of area from latitudes and departures Area by coordinates Computing areas from maps Graphical methods of computing area from maps Mechanical methods for computing area of a plan Amsler polar planimeter Theory of palnimeter Questions 14 Computation of volumes Computation of earthwork from cross-sections Formula for computing areas of cross-sections Cross-sectional areas in filling Equations for volume of simple solids Computation of volume by trapezoidal rule Computation of volume by prismoidal rule Computation of earthwork from spot levels Computation of volume from contours 15 Minor instruments Hand level Burel hand level Clinometers The sextants Pentograph Questions Index
SURVEYING & LEVELING
Contents
1.Introduction
Plans and maps
Applications of surveying
Primary division in surveying
Classification of surveying
Measurements
Units of measurements
Scales
Types of graphical scales
Vernier scale
Special forms of verniers
Shrunk scale
Methods of locating a point in plain
Survey with respect to two reference points
Principles of surveying
Survey of India and topological maps
Phases of works in surveying
Questions
2 Errors in surveying
Types of errors
Sources of errors
Most probable value of accidental error
Errors in the computed quantities
Accuracy in measurement
Relative accuracy between linear and
Angular measurements
Significant figures and rounding off figures
3 Measurement of horizontal distances using chain and tape
Approximate methods of distance measurements
Measurements by chaining
Types of chains
Advantages and disadvantages of
Chain over steel band
Testing and adjustment of chains
Tapes
Accessories required for horizontal
Ranging a survey line
Chaining a horizontal line
Measurement of distances on
Sloping ground
Precise measurement/base line
Measurement
Errors in chaining
Chain and tape corrections
4 Chain surveying
Testing a triangle for its condition
Network of triangles
Selection of stations
Offsets
Setting out perpendicular offsets
Allowable length of offset
Equipment required for chain survey
Field work
Plotting a chain survey
Conventional symbols and colours
Problems in chaining
Obstacles in chaining
Cross staff survey
Traversing with chain and type only
5 Angle and direction measurements with compass
Compass
Differences between prismatic compass
And surveyor’s compass
Working and use of compass
Magnetic bearing and true bearing
Whole circle bearing and quadrantal bearing system
Magnetic dip
Magnetic declination
Fore bearing and back bearing
Computation of angles from bearings
Computation of bearings if bearing
Of a line and included angles are given
Local attraction
Personal errors
Testing and adjusting the compass
6 Compass surveying
Accessories for compass survey
Fiels work
Check in compass survey
Plotting
Closing error and its adjustment
Errors in compass survey
Limits of precision
Omitted measurements
7 Plane table surveying
Plane table and its accessories
Working operations
Methods of plane tabling
Required accuracy in centring
Errors in plane table surveying
Advantages and limitations of plane table survey
8 Levelling
Definition of basic terms used in leveling
Methods of leveling
Leveling instruments
Types of levels
Tripod for the level
Leveling staff
Relative merits of self reading and target staffs
Working principle of telescope
Parts of telescope
Advantages and disadvantages of internal
Focusing telescope
Fundamental axes of a level
Temporary adjustments of a level
Principles of direct leveling
Terms used in leveling
Types of leveling
Simple of leveling
Simple leveling
Differential leveling
Fly leveling
\profile leveling
Cross-sectioning
Hand signals during leveling
Effect of curvature
Effects of refraction
Distance of visible horizon
Balancing backsights and force sights
Reciprocal leveling
Difficulties in leveling
Level tube and its sensitivity
Errors in leveling
Degree of precision
Barometric leveling
Hypsometry
Additional problems
9 Contouring
Contour intervals
Characteristics of contours
Methods of contouring
Direct method of contouring
Indirect contouring
Interpolation of contours
Drawing contours
Contour gradient
Uses of contour maps
10 Theodolite surveying
Main parts of a vernier theodolite
Technical terms associated with
Measurement with theodolite
Fundamental axes of theodolite
Temporary adjustments of a theodolite
Measurement of horizontal angle
Measurement of horizontal angle by
Repetition method
Method of reiteration
Measurement of vertical angle
Field operations with theodolite
Theodlite traversing
Plotting and adjusting chosing error
Trigonometric leveling
Errors in theodolite surveying
Good practices in theodolite survey
Additional problems on theodolite survey
11 Trigonometric leveling
Base of the object accessible
Base of object inaccessible-single plane
Method possible
Base of the object inaccessible –double
Plane method is necessary
Height of an elevated object above
The ground if its base is also visible
12 permanent adjustment of dumpy level and theodolite
Required permanent adjustments in dumpy level
First adjustment of dumpy level
Adjustment of dumpy level
Adjustment of cross hair ring
Third adjustment of dumpy level
Adjustment of line of sight /collimation
Required permanent adjustment in theodolite
First adjustment of theodolite
Adjustment of plate level
Second adjustment of theodolite
Adjustment of horizontal axis
Third adjustment (adjustment of cross hairs)
Fourth adjustment and fifth adjustments
Adjustment of altitude level and vertical index frame
13 Computation of areas
Methods of computation of areas
Computation areas from form field notes
Computation of areas of regular figures
Areas from offsets at regular intervals
Areas from offsets at irregular intervals
Computation of area from latitudes and departures
Area by coordinates
Computing areas from maps
Graphical methods of computing area from maps
Mechanical methods for computing area of a plan
Amsler polar planimeter
Theory of palnimeter
14 Computation of volumes
Computation of earthwork from cross-sections
Formula for computing areas of cross-sections
Cross-sectional areas in filling
Equations for volume of simple solids
Computation of volume by trapezoidal rule
Computation of volume by prismoidal rule
Computation of earthwork from spot levels
Computation of volume from contours
15 Minor instruments
Hand level
Burel hand level
Clinometers
The sextants
Pentograph
Index
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