ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUIT Contents Chapter-1 Electron dynamics and C.R.O Introduction Structure of matter Concept of charged particle Unit of charge Coulomb’s law Electric field intensity Motion of charge in constant electric field Potential Energy acquired by an electron Definition of unit eV Transit time of an electron Two dimensional motion of an electron Special case of two dimensional motion Force in a magnetic field Direction of force Magnitude of force Motion in a magnetic field Radius of circular path Period of revolution T Special case of motion in a magnetic field Introduction to C.R.O Cathode ray tube Electron gun Electron gun Deflection system Fluorescent screen Types of phosphors Advantages Functions of aluminum layer Glass tube Base Basic principle of signal display Requirements of sweep generator Block diagram of oscilloscope CRT Vertical amplifier Delay line Trigger circuit Time base generator Horizontal amplifier Power supply Graditules Electrostatic deflection and sensitivity Electrostatic deflection sensitivity Magnetic deflection and sensitivity Magnetic deflection sensitivity Comparison between deflection methods Deflection defocusing and its causes Parallel electric and magnetic fields Electron directed perpendicular to the fields Perpendicular electric and magnetic fields Qualitative explanation of an electron path Quantitative analysis Examples with solutions Examples with solutions from university papers Review questions Chapter-2 Semiconductor physics & junction diode characteristics Introduction The structure of matter Structure of an atom Structure of semiconductor materials Lionization The energy-band theory The eV,unit of energy Classification of materials based on energy band theory Conductors Insulators Semiconductors Intrinsic semiconductors Crystal structure of intrinsic semiconductor Charge carriers in intrinsic semiconductor Conduction by electrons and holes Conduction in intrinsic semiconductors Conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor Recombination of electrons and holes Drift current Mobility of charged particle General expression for conductivity Conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor Effect of temperature on conductivity Effect of light on semiconductor Carrier concentrations in an intrinsic semiconductor And Fermi level Effect of temperature on energy band diagram Prove that fermilevel lies in the center of forbidden band For intrinsic semiconductors The intrinsic concentration Law of mass action Extrinsic semiconductors Types of impurities n-Type semiconductor conduction in n-type semiconductor p-type semiconductor Conduction in p-type semiconductor Fermi level in extrinsic semiconductor Conductivity of extrinsic semiconductor Conductivity of n type material Conductivity of p type material Law of mass action for extrinsic semiconductors Carrier concentrations in extrinsic semiconductors Equation of charge neutrality Diffusion current Concentration gradient Diffusion current density Total current density due to drift and diffusion Einstein ‘s relationship Voltage equivalent of temperature Carrier lifetimes Diffusion lenth L Potential variation in a continuously graded semiconductor Expression for the potential difference Continuity equation Concentration independent of distance and E=0 Concentration independent of time and E=0 Concentration varies sinusoidally with and E= 0 Hall effect Measurement of mobility and conductivity Introduction to p-n junction Open circuited step graded p-n junction Formation of depletion region Barrier potential Expression for the barrier potential Band structure of p-n junction The p-n junction diode Biasing of p-n junction diode Forward biasing of p-n junction diode Operation of forward biased diode Effect on the depletion region Effect of the barrier potential Reverse biasing of p-n junction diode Operation of reverse biased diode Breakdown in reverse biased The current components in a p-n junction diode The volt-ampere characteristics of a diode Forward characteristics of p-n junction diode Reverse characteristics of p-n junction diode Complete V-I characteristics of a diode V-I characteristics of typical Ge and Si diodes V-I CHARACTERISTICS FROM EQUATION OF DIODE CUT-IN VOLTAGE Derivation of V-I characteristics of p-n junction diode Mathematical expression for the dynamic resistance Temperature dependence of diode characteristics Effect of temperature on forward voltage Effect of temperature on reverse saturation current Transition capacitance Derivation of expression for transition capacitance Varactor diode Symbol and equivalent circuit Expression for transition capacitance Data sheet information of varactor diode Applications Diffusion capacitance Derivation of expression for diffusion capacitance Breakdown mechanisms in diode Avalanche breakdown Zener breakdown Comparison of breakdown mechanisms Temperature dependence of breakdown voltages Zener diode Characteristics of zener diode Equivalent circuit of zener diode Effect of temperature on zener diode Breakdown mechanisms in zener diode Zener breakdown Avalanche breakdown Comparison of zener diode and p-n junction diode Application of zener diode Tunnel diode Tunneling effect Energy band structure of tunnel diode Characteristics of a tunnel diode Construction Load line for tunnel diode Negative resistance oscillator using tunnel diode Sinusoidal oscillator using tunnel diode Advantages of tunnel diode Other applications of tunnel diode Comparison of tunnel diode and conventional diode Specifications of tunnel diode Diode switching times Light emitting diodes Basic operation Construction of LED LED: voltage and current Spectral output curves for LED Radiation pattern of LED Output characteristics of LED Data sheet information of LED Advantages of LED Disadvantages of LED Comparison of LED and p-n junction diode Applications of LED Liquid crystal display Dynamic scattering LCDs Field effects LCD LCD display driver circuit Advantages of LCDs Disadvantages of LCDs Comparison between LED and LCDs Photodiode Photodiode characteristics Use of photodiode as variable resistance device Why to be used in reverse biased Small signal model of photodiode Sensitivity with position of illumination Photodiode as a voltage cell Advantages Disadvantages Photodiode applications Photodiode control circuit Examples with solutions from university papers Review questions Chapter-3 Rectifiers filters and regulators Circuit model of a diode Rectifiers The important characteristics of a rectifier circuit Half wave rectifier Operation of the circuit Average DC load current R.M.S value of load current D.C power output A.C power input Rectifier efficiency Ripple factor Load current Peak inverse voltage Transformer utilization factor Voltage regulation Regulation characteristics Disadvantages of half wave rectifier circuit Effect of barrier potential Full wave rectifier Operation of the circuit Maximum load current Average DC load current Average DC load voltage RMS load current DC power output AC power input Rectifiers factor Ripple factor Load current Peak inverse voltage Transformer utilization factor Voltage regulation Comparison of full wave and half wave circuit Bridge rectifier Operation of the circuit Expressions for various parameters PIV rating of diodes What happens if input and output terminals are reversed Advantages of bridge rectifier circuit Disadvantages of bridge rectifier Comparison of rectifier circuits Filter circuits Capacitor input filter Operation of the filter Full wave rectifier with capacitor input filter Expression for ripple factor Expression for ripple voltage Surge current in a capacitor input filter Limiting the surge current Advantages and disadvantages of capacitor input filter Inductor filters or choke filter Operation of the circuit Expression for the ripple factor L-section filter or LC filter Derivation of ripple factor The necessity of bleeder resistance R Multiple L- section filter Comparisons between capacitor input and LC filter CLC filter or filter Ripple factor Multiple section filter Block schematic of regulated power supply Factors affecting the load voltage Power supply performance parameters Load regulation Line regulation or source regulation Output resistance Voltage stability factor Temperature stability factor Ripple rejection Basic voltage regulators Shunt voltage regulator Series voltage regulator Comparison of shunt and series regulators Comparison of rectifier and regulator Zener Diode as a regulator Regulation with a varying input voltage Regulation with a varying load Circuit protection Design of zener regulator with varying load and varying input conditions Examples with solutions from university papers Review questions Chapter-4 transistor and FET characteristics Junction transistor Transistor types Principles of operation Unbiased transistor Biased transistor Working of N-P-N transistor Working of P-N-P transistor Transistor currents Transistor current components Transistor as an amplifier Transistor construction Detailed study of the currents in a transistor The transistor alpha Input and output characteristics in transistor configurations Common base configuration Common emitter configuration Common collector configuration Comparison of transistor configurations Relation between alpha and beta Typical transistor junction voltage values Transistor as a switch Field effect transistor Structure of JFET Structure of n-channel JEFT and symbol Structure of p-channel JEFT and symbol Unbiased JFET Principle of operation of JFET JFET characteristics Drain V-I characteristics for n-channel JFET Drain V-I characteristics for p-channel JFET Transfer characteristics for n-channel JFET Transfer characteristics for p-n channel JFET Dc load line JFET parameters Tran conductance Input resistance and capacitance Amplification factor JFET as a VVR or VDR Small signal model of JFET MOSFETs characteristics Depletion MOSFET Construction of n-channel MOSFET Operation characteristics and parameters of n-channel E- MOSFET P-channel enhancement type MOSFET Applications of MOSFET as a VLSI device Comparison of transistors Comparison of BJT and FET Comparison of JFET and MOSFET Comparison of D-MOSFET and E-MOSFET Introduction to SCR Construction Operation of SCR Two transistor analogy SCR parameters Methods of tuning ON SCR Tum OFF mechanism Applications of SCR Introduction to UJT Construction Equivalent circuit off ratio Principle of operation UJT characteristics Applications UJT relaxation oscillator Operation Condition for Tum on and Tum off Examples with solutions from university papers Review questions Chapter-5 Biasing and stabilization BJT biasing DC equivalent model Criteria for fixing operating point Typical junction voltages and conditions for operating region Bias stabilization Fixed bias circuit Circuit analysis Load line analysis Self bias circuit Circuit analysis Stability improvement Voltage divider biased Circuit analysis Simplified circuit of voltage divider bias Collector to base bias circuit Circuit analysis Modified DC bias with voltage feedback Stability factors Stability factors for fixed bias circuit stability factor S Stability factors for collector to base bias circuit Stability factors for voltage divider bias stability factor S Techniques compensation Diode compensation techniques Thermistor compensation Sensistor compensation technique Thermal runway Thermal resistance Thermal stability Examples with solutions Examples with solutions from university papers Review questions Chapter-6 Amplifiers Introduction Small signal low frequency transistor amplifier circuits Common emitter amplifier circuit Common collector amplifier circuit Common base amplifier circuit Parameter representation of a transistor Analysis of single stage transistor amplifier using h-parameters Guidelines for analysis of a transistor circuit Analysis of transistor amplifier using simplified hybrid model Analysis of common collector circuit using simplified hybrid model Analysis of common base circuit using simplified model Analysis of common emitter amplifier with collector to base bias Millar‘s theorem Analysis of common-emitter amplifier with an emitter resistance Approximate analysis Comparison of transistor configurations Examples with solutions Examples with solutions from university papers Review questions Chapter-7 Feedback amplifiers Introduction Classification of amplifiers Voltage amplifier Current amplifier Tran conductance amplifier Tran resistance amplifier Concept of feedback Sampling network Feedback network Mixer network Transfer ratio or gain Classification of feedback amplifiers General characteristics of negative feedback amplifiers Transfer gain Stability of gain Frequency response and bandwidth Frequency distortion Noise and nonlinear distortion Input and output resistances Input resistance Output resistance Summary of effects of negative feedback on Amplifier characteristics Methodology of feedback amplifier analysis Voltage series feedback Transistor emitter follower FET source follower Current series feedback Current shunt feedback Voltage shunt feedback Examples with solutions Examples with solutions from university papers Review questions Chapter-8 Oscillators Introduction Basic theory of oscillators Barkhausen criterion Classification of oscillators Based on the output waveform Based on the circuit components Based on the range of operating frequency Based on: whether feedback is used or not ? R-C phase shift oscillator RC feedback network Phase shift oscillator using transistor Derivation for the frequency of oscillations Minimum value of hfe for the oscillations FET phase shift oscillator Advantages Disadvantages Wien bridge oscillator Derivation for frequency of oscillations Transistorized wien bridge oscillator Wien bridge oscillator using FET Comparison of RC phase shift and wien bridge oscillators LC oscillators Operation of LC tank circuit Basic form of LC oscillator circuit Hartlely oscillator Transistorized Hartley oscillator Derivation of frequency of oscillations Colpitts oscillator Transistorized colpitts oscillator Derivation of frequency of oscillations Frequency stability of oscillator Crystal oscillators Constructional details Equivalent circuit Series and parallel resonance Crystal stability Pierce crystal oscillator Miller crystal oscillator Examples with solutions from university papers Review questions
ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUIT
Contents
Chapter-1 Electron dynamics and C.R.O
Introduction
Structure of matter
Concept of charged particle
Unit of charge
Coulomb’s law
Electric field intensity
Motion of charge in constant electric field
Potential
Energy acquired by an electron
Definition of unit eV
Transit time of an electron
Two dimensional motion of an electron
Special case of two dimensional motion
Force in a magnetic field
Direction of force
Magnitude of force
Motion in a magnetic field
Radius of circular path
Period of revolution T
Special case of motion in a magnetic field
Introduction to C.R.O
Cathode ray tube
Electron gun
Deflection system
Fluorescent screen
Types of phosphors
Advantages
Functions of aluminum layer
Glass tube
Base
Basic principle of signal display
Requirements of sweep generator
Block diagram of oscilloscope
CRT
Vertical amplifier
Delay line
Trigger circuit
Time base generator
Horizontal amplifier
Power supply
Graditules
Electrostatic deflection and sensitivity
Electrostatic deflection sensitivity
Magnetic deflection and sensitivity
Magnetic deflection sensitivity
Comparison between deflection methods
Deflection defocusing and its causes
Parallel electric and magnetic fields
Electron directed perpendicular to the fields
Perpendicular electric and magnetic fields
Qualitative explanation of an electron path
Quantitative analysis
Examples with solutions
Examples with solutions from university papers
Review questions
Chapter-2 Semiconductor physics & junction diode characteristics
The structure of matter
Structure of an atom
Structure of semiconductor materials
Lionization
The energy-band theory
The eV,unit of energy
Classification of materials based on energy band theory
Conductors
Insulators
Semiconductors
Intrinsic semiconductors
Crystal structure of intrinsic semiconductor
Charge carriers in intrinsic semiconductor
Conduction by electrons and holes
Conduction in intrinsic semiconductors
Conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor
Recombination of electrons and holes
Drift current
Mobility of charged particle
General expression for conductivity
Conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor
Effect of temperature on conductivity
Effect of light on semiconductor
Carrier concentrations in an intrinsic semiconductor
And Fermi level
Effect of temperature on energy band diagram
Prove that fermilevel lies in the center of forbidden band
For intrinsic semiconductors
The intrinsic concentration
Law of mass action
Extrinsic semiconductors
Types of impurities
n-Type semiconductor
conduction in n-type semiconductor
p-type semiconductor
Conduction in p-type semiconductor
Fermi level in extrinsic semiconductor
Conductivity of extrinsic semiconductor
Conductivity of n type material
Conductivity of p type material
Law of mass action for extrinsic semiconductors
Carrier concentrations in extrinsic semiconductors
Equation of charge neutrality
Diffusion current
Concentration gradient
Diffusion current density
Total current density due to drift and diffusion
Einstein ‘s relationship
Voltage equivalent of temperature
Carrier lifetimes
Diffusion lenth L
Potential variation in a continuously graded semiconductor
Expression for the potential difference
Continuity equation
Concentration independent of distance and E=0
Concentration independent of time and E=0
Concentration varies sinusoidally with and E= 0
Hall effect
Measurement of mobility and conductivity
Introduction to p-n junction
Open circuited step graded p-n junction
Formation of depletion region
Barrier potential
Expression for the barrier potential
Band structure of p-n junction
The p-n junction diode
Biasing of p-n junction diode
Forward biasing of p-n junction diode
Operation of forward biased diode
Effect on the depletion region
Effect of the barrier potential
Reverse biasing of p-n junction diode
Operation of reverse biased diode
Breakdown in reverse biased
The current components in a p-n junction diode
The volt-ampere characteristics of a diode
Forward characteristics of p-n junction diode
Reverse characteristics of p-n junction diode
Complete V-I characteristics of a diode
V-I characteristics of typical Ge and Si diodes
V-I CHARACTERISTICS FROM EQUATION OF DIODE
CUT-IN VOLTAGE
Derivation of V-I characteristics of p-n junction diode
Mathematical expression for the dynamic resistance
Temperature dependence of diode characteristics
Effect of temperature on forward voltage
Effect of temperature on reverse saturation current
Transition capacitance
Derivation of expression for transition capacitance
Varactor diode
Symbol and equivalent circuit
Expression for transition capacitance
Data sheet information of varactor diode
Applications
Diffusion capacitance
Derivation of expression for diffusion capacitance
Breakdown mechanisms in diode
Avalanche breakdown
Zener breakdown
Comparison of breakdown mechanisms
Temperature dependence of breakdown voltages
Zener diode
Characteristics of zener diode
Equivalent circuit of zener diode
Effect of temperature on zener diode
Breakdown mechanisms in zener diode
Comparison of zener diode and p-n junction diode
Application of zener diode
Tunnel diode
Tunneling effect
Energy band structure of tunnel diode
Characteristics of a tunnel diode
Construction
Load line for tunnel diode
Negative resistance oscillator using tunnel diode
Sinusoidal oscillator using tunnel diode
Advantages of tunnel diode
Other applications of tunnel diode
Comparison of tunnel diode and conventional diode
Specifications of tunnel diode
Diode switching times
Light emitting diodes
Basic operation
Construction of LED
LED: voltage and current
Spectral output curves for LED
Radiation pattern of LED
Output characteristics of LED
Data sheet information of LED
Advantages of LED
Disadvantages of LED
Comparison of LED and p-n junction diode
Applications of LED
Liquid crystal display
Dynamic scattering LCDs
Field effects LCD
LCD display driver circuit
Advantages of LCDs
Disadvantages of LCDs
Comparison between LED and LCDs
Photodiode
Photodiode characteristics
Use of photodiode as variable resistance device
Why to be used in reverse biased
Small signal model of photodiode
Sensitivity with position of illumination
Photodiode as a voltage cell
Disadvantages
Photodiode applications
Photodiode control circuit
Chapter-3 Rectifiers filters and regulators
Circuit model of a diode
Rectifiers
The important characteristics of a rectifier circuit
Half wave rectifier
Operation of the circuit
Average DC load current
R.M.S value of load current
D.C power output
A.C power input
Rectifier efficiency
Ripple factor
Load current
Peak inverse voltage
Transformer utilization factor
Voltage regulation
Regulation characteristics
Disadvantages of half wave rectifier circuit
Effect of barrier potential
Full wave rectifier
Maximum load current
Average DC load voltage
RMS load current
DC power output
AC power input
Rectifiers factor
Comparison of full wave and half wave circuit
Bridge rectifier
Expressions for various parameters
PIV rating of diodes
What happens if input and output terminals are reversed
Advantages of bridge rectifier circuit
Disadvantages of bridge rectifier
Comparison of rectifier circuits
Filter circuits
Capacitor input filter
Operation of the filter
Full wave rectifier with capacitor input filter
Expression for ripple factor
Expression for ripple voltage
Surge current in a capacitor input filter
Limiting the surge current
Advantages and disadvantages of capacitor input filter
Inductor filters or choke filter
Expression for the ripple factor
L-section filter or LC filter
Derivation of ripple factor
The necessity of bleeder resistance R
Multiple L- section filter
Comparisons between capacitor input and LC filter
CLC filter or filter
Multiple section filter
Block schematic of regulated power supply
Factors affecting the load voltage
Power supply performance parameters
Load regulation
Line regulation or source regulation
Output resistance
Voltage stability factor
Temperature stability factor
Ripple rejection
Basic voltage regulators
Shunt voltage regulator
Series voltage regulator
Comparison of shunt and series regulators
Comparison of rectifier and regulator
Zener Diode as a regulator
Regulation with a varying input voltage
Regulation with a varying load
Circuit protection
Design of zener regulator with varying load and varying input conditions
Chapter-4 transistor and FET characteristics
Junction transistor
Transistor types
Principles of operation
Unbiased transistor
Biased transistor
Working of N-P-N transistor
Working of P-N-P transistor
Transistor currents
Transistor current components
Transistor as an amplifier
Transistor construction
Detailed study of the currents in a transistor
The transistor alpha
Input and output characteristics in transistor configurations
Common base configuration
Common emitter configuration
Common collector configuration
Comparison of transistor configurations
Relation between alpha and beta
Typical transistor junction voltage values
Transistor as a switch
Field effect transistor
Structure of JFET
Structure of n-channel JEFT and symbol
Structure of p-channel JEFT and symbol
Unbiased JFET
Principle of operation of JFET
JFET characteristics
Drain V-I characteristics for n-channel JFET
Drain V-I characteristics for p-channel JFET
Transfer characteristics for n-channel JFET
Transfer characteristics for p-n channel JFET
Dc load line
JFET parameters
Tran conductance
Input resistance and capacitance
Amplification factor
JFET as a VVR or VDR
Small signal model of JFET
MOSFETs characteristics
Depletion MOSFET
Construction of n-channel MOSFET
Operation characteristics and parameters of n-channel E- MOSFET
P-channel enhancement type MOSFET
Applications of MOSFET as a VLSI device
Comparison of transistors
Comparison of BJT and FET
Comparison of JFET and MOSFET
Comparison of D-MOSFET and E-MOSFET
Introduction to SCR
Operation of SCR
Two transistor analogy
SCR parameters
Methods of tuning ON SCR
Tum OFF mechanism
Applications of SCR
Introduction to UJT
Equivalent circuit off ratio
Principle of operation
UJT characteristics
UJT relaxation oscillator
Operation
Condition for Tum on and Tum off
Chapter-5 Biasing and stabilization
BJT biasing
DC equivalent model
Criteria for fixing operating point
Typical junction voltages and conditions for operating region
Bias stabilization
Fixed bias circuit
Circuit analysis
Load line analysis
Self bias circuit
Stability improvement
Voltage divider biased
Simplified circuit of voltage divider bias
Collector to base bias circuit
Modified DC bias with voltage feedback
Stability factors
Stability factors for fixed bias circuit stability factor S
Stability factors for collector to base bias circuit
Stability factors for voltage divider bias stability factor S
Techniques compensation
Diode compensation techniques
Thermistor compensation
Sensistor compensation technique
Thermal runway
Thermal resistance
Thermal stability
Chapter-6 Amplifiers
Small signal low frequency transistor amplifier circuits
Common emitter amplifier circuit
Common collector amplifier circuit
Common base amplifier circuit
Parameter representation of a transistor
Analysis of single stage transistor amplifier using h-parameters
Guidelines for analysis of a transistor circuit
Analysis of transistor amplifier using simplified hybrid model
Analysis of common collector circuit using simplified hybrid model
Analysis of common base circuit using simplified model
Analysis of common emitter amplifier with collector to base bias
Millar‘s theorem
Analysis of common-emitter amplifier with an emitter resistance
Approximate analysis
Chapter-7 Feedback amplifiers
Classification of amplifiers
Voltage amplifier
Current amplifier
Tran conductance amplifier
Tran resistance amplifier
Concept of feedback
Sampling network
Feedback network
Mixer network
Transfer ratio or gain
Classification of feedback amplifiers
General characteristics of negative feedback amplifiers
Transfer gain
Stability of gain
Frequency response and bandwidth
Frequency distortion
Noise and nonlinear distortion
Input and output resistances
Input resistance
Summary of effects of negative feedback on
Amplifier characteristics
Methodology of feedback amplifier analysis
Voltage series feedback
Transistor emitter follower
FET source follower
Current series feedback
Current shunt feedback
Voltage shunt feedback
Chapter-8 Oscillators
Basic theory of oscillators
Barkhausen criterion
Classification of oscillators
Based on the output waveform
Based on the circuit components
Based on the range of operating frequency
Based on: whether feedback is used or not ?
R-C phase shift oscillator
RC feedback network
Phase shift oscillator using transistor
Derivation for the frequency of oscillations
Minimum value of hfe for the oscillations
FET phase shift oscillator
Wien bridge oscillator
Derivation for frequency of oscillations
Transistorized wien bridge oscillator
Wien bridge oscillator using FET
Comparison of RC phase shift and wien bridge oscillators
LC oscillators
Operation of LC tank circuit
Basic form of LC oscillator circuit
Hartlely oscillator
Transistorized Hartley oscillator
Derivation of frequency of oscillations
Colpitts oscillator
Transistorized colpitts oscillator
Frequency stability of oscillator
Crystal oscillators
Constructional details
Equivalent circuit
Series and parallel resonance
Crystal stability
Pierce crystal oscillator
Miller crystal oscillator
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