Bakery Technology Chapter 1: Basic Food Science Carbohydrates Sources of carbohydrates used in baking Carbohydrate synthesis Simple vs. complex Physical and chemical differentiation Monosaccharides Sugar: Disaccharides and trisaccharides Starch Dextrins Gelatinization of starches Retrogradation of starch Acrylamide formation Glycemic index vs. glycemic response Pentosans Sources of pentosans in baking Structure Physical and chemical differentiation Functions and effects during baking Fiber Sources of fiber Defi nition of dietary fiber Structure Properties of fi ber in food Probiotics, prebiotics and synbiotics Proteins and enzymes Proteins Sources of proteins Amino acids Classifi cation of proteins Structure of proteins Properties of proteins Proteins of wheat Enzymes Sources of enzymes Classifi cation and nomenclature of enzymes Lock-and-key, induced fi t of enzymes Properties of enzymes Lipids Source of lipids Nomenclature Chemical composition Fatty acids Fatty acid naming protocols Saturated vs. unsaturated Cis vs. trans Short- and medium-chain fatty acids Mono-, di- and triglycerides Sterols and stanols Other lipids Physical aspects Liquid, plastic and solid forms Melting point Crystallinity Hydrogenation and interesterifi cation Oxidation Autoxidation mechanism Antioxidants Hydrolysis and polymerization Physical chemistry Acid-base reactions Electrolytes Titration Active acidity The pH concept Buffers pH determination Role of pH in baking Buffering action of proteins Oxidation and reduction The redox potential Estimation of redox potential Role of oxidation in baking Role of pentosans Role of thiols and disulfi des Role of fl our lipids Dough physics: colloids and rheology States of matter Baking Science & Technology Molecular forces Colloidal systems Emulsions Foams Colloidal character of dough Colloidal aspects of fl our particles Starch Dextrins Pentosans Water solubles Flour proteins Role of polar fl our lipids Chemical bonds Water in dough Adsorption vs. absorption Cell structure in dough Dough rheology Chapter 2: Bakery Ingredients Part A: Major Ingredients Wheat flour Structure of the wheat kernel Components of wheat flour Flour treatment Flour quality Flour absorption Flour storage Flour milling Flour types Pastry, cake and cookie flour Germ and bran as fl our components and ingredients Whole-grain flour Non-wheat flours Rye Soy flour Masa (nixtamalized corn flour) Sweeteners Sucrose Corn syrups and dextrose Honey Malt and malt syrups Lactose Table of Contents Sorghum and maple syrups Role in breadmaking Role in cakemaking Role in cookies and crackers Shortenings Sources and composition Physical characteristics Shortening processing Categories Bakery applications Frying fats Recent issues involving bakery shortenings Water Chemical nature of water Sources of water pH variability Mineral constituents Water treatment Water’s functions in dough and batter Ice as an ingredient Chapter 2: Bakery Ingredients Part B: Minor ingredients Leavening Yeast Bacteria Chemical leavening Air and steam Dairy Milk’s composition Commercial forms of milk Cheese Whey products Storage stability Nonfat dry milk’s functionality Practical aspects of milk products in baking Eggs Structure of eggs Processing of eggs Commercial forms of eggs Functions in baking Recent developments Starch Wheat starch Supplementary starches Properties and functions Starch’s role in bread baking ...................................................................... 356 Cake, cookie, cracker and other applications Recent developments Fiber Composition Fiber ingredients and their processing Bakery applications Bulking agents Prebiotics and probiotics Chapter 2: Bakery Ingredients Part C: Micro ingredients Oxidation, reduction, yeast foods and buffers Oxidation and reduction Reducing agents Yeast foods and buffers Amylase in dough Cereal proteinases Malt Exogenous enzymes Gluten Nature of gluten Gliadin Glutenin Glutenin-gliadin ratios Glutenin interactions during mixing Sulfhydryl and disulfi de groups Protein-lipid interaction Vital wheat gluten Proteins Concentrates and isolates Allergens Salt Salt sources and processing Sea salt Forms and grades Specifi c applications Salt functionality Improvers Emulsifi ers and surfactants Compounds Functionality of improvers Antioxidants and antimicrobials Antioxidant ingredients Antimicrobial ingredients Spoilage organisms Gums (hydrocolloids) Sources How they work Functions in baking Enrichment and fortifi cation Mandatory vs. voluntary Contemporary issues Technical considerations Storage and handling Beyond vitamins and minerals Chapter 2: Bakery Ingredients Part D: Characterizing Ingredients Fruits Fresh, canned and frozen fruits Dried and dehydrated fruits Glacé and candied fruit Nuts True nuts Seed nuts Flavors Natural, artifi cial and mixtures Flavor components Extract processing Vanilla Storing fl avor extracts Spices Sources Processing Colors Color additives vs. colorants Certifi able vs. exempt Dyes and lakes Baking Science & Technology Caramel color Spice blends Reactive colors Cocoa and chocolate Chocolate Cocoa powders Confectionery coatings Bloom Fabricated particulates Chapter 2: Bakery Ingredients Part E: Ingredient Systems Ingredient components Ingredient handling Processing Mixing equipment Blending methods Packaging Chapter 3: Crops and their processing (By C.E. Walker and J. Li) Eight principal cereal grains of commerce Barley Corn (maize) The millets Oats Rice Rye Sorghum (milo) Wheat Minor and pseudocereals and special wheats Amarant Coix (adley, Job’s tears) Emmer and spelt Kamut Quinoa Teff ... Triticale Pulses and oilseeds Non-grain oils Coconut Olive Palm Oilseeds Canola (rape) Flax Peanut Poppy Saffl ower Sesame Soy Sunfl ower Lentil Lupin Crop improvement Chapter 4: Quality Laboratory (By T. Cogswell) The bake test Physical dough testing AlveoConsistograph Extensograph Farinograph Mixograph Rheograph Dough quality controller systems Research Extensometer Maturograph Flourometer method Dough shock test Firmness test . Physiochemical tests Near-infrared refl ectance analysis Flour color The slick test Colorimeter instruments Ash determination Moisture measurement methods Direct (or chemical) methods Indirect (or physical) methods Flour moisture determination Baking Science & Technology The vacuum oven method The air oven method The air oven aluminum plate method .. Protein determinations Kjeldahl procedure Biuret method Crude gluten Sedimentation tests Acidity determinations pH determination Total titratable acidity (TTA) Free fatty acid titrations Iodine value Enzymatic activity methods Diastatic activity of flour Amylograph method Rapid Visco Analyzer method Falling Number method Proteolytic activity Determination of sugar Gas production methods Miscellaneous determinations Lipid content Crude fiber Dietary fiber Bread scoring External characteristics Internal characteristics Flavor factors..... How to set up a bakery laboratory Testing of raw materials Flour Sugar Shortening, fats and oils Measurements during processing Finished product monitoring Moisture Weight Dimensions Salt and fat content Suggested laboratory equipment Equipment for general use Equipment for specifi c tests Chapter 5: Sanitation and Regulations Sanitation: A prerequisite to safe food Sanitation, food safety and foodborne illness Elements of a good sanitation program Sanitation as a system Areas your sanitation programs should address Regulating Sanitation Sanitation regulations Regulatory inspection Preparing for inspection The inspection Developing sanitation systems Sanitation SOPs Good manufacturing practices Preventive maintenance PM programs Establishing preventive maintenance programs Training and education Why educate and train? Understand your audience Educational needs The fi nal element Assuring water quality and safety Ice Water quality analysis Water quality and its effects on process operations Cleaning and sanitizing Plant water systems Condition and cleanliness of food contact surfaces Constraints in cleaning dry processing operations How to clean Personal hygiene and employee health Hand washing Disease control Uniforms and garments Hair restraints Jewelry Personnel facilities Baking Science & Technology Product protection programs Sanitary design of equipment Building design and maintenance Floors Drains Walls Ceilings Lighting Doors Traffic Warehouse design Grounds Glass and brittle plastic Allergen control Vendor certification Receiving and storage Control in batching and blending Production control and scheduling Control of rework Tracking and traceability Cleaning Education Chemical handling and control MSDS sheets Chemicals Lubricants Pest management Premises for program building Pest exclusion Monitoring Chemicals for pest control Documenting the program Verifi cation and recordkeeping Forms Proper recordkeeping
Bakery Technology
Chapter 1: Basic Food Science
Carbohydrates
Sources of carbohydrates used in baking
Carbohydrate synthesis
Simple vs. complex
Physical and chemical differentiation
Monosaccharides
Sugar: Disaccharides and trisaccharides
Starch
Dextrins
Gelatinization of starches
Retrogradation of starch
Acrylamide formation
Glycemic index vs. glycemic response
Pentosans
Sources of pentosans in baking
Structure
Functions and effects during baking
Fiber
Sources of fiber
Defi nition of dietary fiber Structure
Properties of fi ber in food
Probiotics, prebiotics and synbiotics
Proteins and enzymes
Proteins
Sources of proteins
Amino acids
Classifi cation of proteins
Structure of proteins
Properties of proteins
Proteins of wheat
Enzymes
Sources of enzymes
Classifi cation and nomenclature of enzymes
Lock-and-key, induced fi t of enzymes
Properties of enzymes
Lipids
Source of lipids
Nomenclature
Chemical composition
Fatty acids
Fatty acid naming protocols
Saturated vs. unsaturated
Cis vs. trans
Short- and medium-chain fatty acids
Mono-, di- and triglycerides
Sterols and stanols
Other lipids
Physical aspects
Liquid, plastic and solid forms
Melting point
Crystallinity
Hydrogenation and interesterifi
cation
Oxidation
Autoxidation mechanism
Antioxidants
Hydrolysis and polymerization
Physical chemistry
Acid-base reactions
Electrolytes
Titration
Active acidity
The pH concept
Buffers
pH determination
Role of pH in baking
Buffering action of proteins
Oxidation and reduction
The redox potential
Estimation of redox potential
Role of oxidation in baking
Role of pentosans
Role of thiols and disulfi
des
Role of fl our lipids
Dough physics: colloids and rheology
States of matter
Baking Science & Technology
Molecular forces
Colloidal systems
Emulsions
Foams
Colloidal character of dough
Colloidal aspects of fl our particles
Water solubles
Flour proteins
Role of polar fl our lipids
Chemical bonds
Water in dough
Adsorption vs. absorption
Cell structure in dough
Dough rheology
Chapter 2: Bakery Ingredients
Part A: Major Ingredients
Wheat flour
Structure of the wheat kernel
Components of wheat flour
Flour treatment
Flour quality
Flour absorption
Flour storage
Flour milling
Flour types
Pastry, cake and cookie flour
Germ and bran as fl our components and ingredients
Whole-grain flour
Non-wheat flours
Rye
Soy flour
Masa (nixtamalized corn flour)
Sweeteners
Sucrose
Corn syrups and dextrose
Honey
Malt and malt syrups
Lactose
Table of Contents
Sorghum and maple syrups
Role in breadmaking
Role in cakemaking
Role in cookies and crackers
Shortenings
Sources and composition
Physical characteristics
Shortening processing
Categories
Bakery applications
Frying fats
Recent issues involving bakery shortenings
Water
Chemical nature of water
Sources of water
pH variability
Mineral constituents
Water treatment
Water’s functions in dough and batter
Ice as an ingredient
Part B: Minor ingredients
Leavening
Yeast
Bacteria
Chemical leavening
Air and steam
Dairy
Milk’s composition
Commercial forms of milk
Cheese
Whey products
Storage stability
Nonfat dry milk’s functionality
Practical aspects of milk products in baking
Eggs
Structure of eggs
Processing of eggs
Commercial forms of eggs
Functions in baking
Recent developments
Wheat starch
Supplementary starches
Properties and functions
Starch’s role in bread baking ...................................................................... 356
Cake, cookie, cracker and other applications
Composition
Fiber ingredients and their processing
Bulking agents
Prebiotics and probiotics
Part C: Micro ingredients
Oxidation, reduction, yeast foods and buffers
Reducing agents
Yeast foods and buffers
Amylase in dough
Cereal proteinases
Malt
Exogenous enzymes
Gluten
Nature of gluten
Gliadin
Glutenin
Glutenin-gliadin ratios
Glutenin interactions during mixing
Sulfhydryl and disulfi
de groups
Protein-lipid interaction
Vital wheat gluten
Concentrates and isolates
Allergens
Salt
Salt sources and processing
Sea salt
Forms and grades
Specifi c applications
Salt functionality
Improvers
Emulsifi ers and surfactants
Compounds
Functionality of improvers
Antioxidants and antimicrobials
Antioxidant ingredients
Antimicrobial ingredients
Spoilage organisms
Gums (hydrocolloids)
Sources
How they work
Enrichment and fortifi
Mandatory vs. voluntary
Contemporary issues
Technical considerations
Storage and handling
Beyond vitamins and minerals
Part D: Characterizing Ingredients
Fruits
Fresh, canned and frozen fruits
Dried and dehydrated fruits
Glacé and candied fruit
Nuts
True nuts
Seed nuts
Flavors
Natural, artifi cial and mixtures
Flavor components
Extract processing
Vanilla
Storing fl avor extracts
Spices
Processing
Colors
Color additives vs. colorants
Certifi able vs. exempt
Dyes and lakes
Caramel color
Spice blends
Reactive colors
Cocoa and chocolate
Chocolate
Cocoa powders
Confectionery coatings
Bloom
Fabricated particulates
Part E: Ingredient Systems
Ingredient components
Ingredient handling
Mixing equipment
Blending methods
Packaging
Chapter 3: Crops and their processing
(By C.E. Walker and J. Li)
Eight principal cereal grains of commerce
Barley
Corn (maize)
The millets
Oats
Rice
Sorghum (milo)
Wheat
Minor and pseudocereals and special wheats
Amarant
Coix (adley, Job’s tears)
Emmer and spelt
Kamut
Quinoa
Teff ...
Triticale
Pulses and oilseeds
Non-grain oils
Coconut
Olive
Palm
Oilseeds
Canola (rape)
Flax
Peanut
Poppy
Saffl
ower
Sesame
Soy
Sunfl
Lentil
Lupin
Crop improvement
Chapter 4: Quality Laboratory
(By T. Cogswell)
The bake test
Physical dough testing
AlveoConsistograph
Extensograph
Farinograph
Mixograph
Rheograph
Dough quality controller systems
Research Extensometer
Maturograph
Flourometer method
Dough shock test
Firmness test .
Physiochemical tests
Near-infrared refl ectance analysis
Flour color
The slick test
Colorimeter instruments
Ash determination
Moisture measurement methods
Direct (or chemical) methods
Indirect (or physical) methods
Flour moisture determination
The vacuum oven method
The air oven method
The air oven aluminum plate method ..
Protein determinations
Kjeldahl procedure
Biuret method
Crude gluten
Sedimentation tests
Acidity determinations
Total titratable acidity (TTA)
Free fatty acid titrations
Iodine value
Enzymatic activity methods
Diastatic activity of flour
Amylograph method
Rapid Visco Analyzer method
Falling Number method
Proteolytic activity
Determination of sugar
Gas production methods
Miscellaneous determinations
Lipid content
Crude fiber
Dietary fiber
Bread scoring
External characteristics
Internal characteristics
Flavor factors.....
How to set up a bakery laboratory
Testing of raw materials
Flour
Sugar
Shortening, fats and oils
Measurements during processing
Finished product monitoring
Moisture
Weight
Dimensions
Salt and fat content
Suggested laboratory equipment
Equipment for general use
Equipment for specifi c tests
Chapter 5: Sanitation and Regulations
Sanitation: A prerequisite to safe food
Sanitation, food safety and foodborne illness
Elements of a good sanitation program
Sanitation as a system
Areas your sanitation programs should address
Regulating Sanitation
Sanitation regulations
Regulatory inspection
Preparing for inspection
The inspection
Developing sanitation systems
Sanitation SOPs
Good manufacturing practices
Preventive maintenance
PM programs
Establishing preventive maintenance programs
Training and education
Why educate and train?
Understand your audience
Educational needs
The fi nal element
Assuring water quality and safety
Ice
Water quality analysis
Water quality and its effects on process operations
Cleaning and sanitizing
Plant water systems
Condition and cleanliness of food contact surfaces
Constraints in cleaning dry processing operations
How to clean
Personal hygiene and employee health
Hand washing
Disease control
Uniforms and garments
Hair restraints Jewelry
Personnel facilities
Product protection programs
Sanitary design of equipment
Building design and maintenance
Floors
Drains
Walls
Ceilings
Lighting
Doors
Traffic
Warehouse design
Grounds
Glass and brittle plastic
Allergen control
Vendor certification
Receiving and storage
Control in batching and blending
Production control and scheduling
Control of rework
Tracking and traceability
Cleaning
Education
Chemical handling and control
MSDS sheets
Chemicals
Lubricants
Pest management
Premises for program building
Pest exclusion
Monitoring
Chemicals for pest control
Documenting the program
Verifi cation and recordkeeping
Forms
Proper recordkeeping
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