BASIC ELECTRONICS Contents Preface Acknowledgements 1 An introduction to electronics Introduction A brief history of electronics Transducers Signals and frequency spectrum Functional building blocks and electronic systems Questions 2 Semiconductors, materials and junction diodes Classification of solids Atomic structure and energy levels Energy levels Extrinsic semiconductors Conduction in metals and semiconductors Conduction in metals Conduction in semiconductors Semiconductors diode Diode under forward bias condition Diode under reverse bias condition Current-voltage characteristics of a p-n junction diode Diode breakdown Diode resistance Circuit model of a p-n junction diode The Ideal-diode model The constant-voltage-drop model Piecewise-linear model Solved problems Questions 3 Junction diodes and their applications DC power supply Rectifier circuits The half-wave rectifier The full-wave rectifier The bridge rectifier Rectifier with a shunt capacitor fitter Rectifier with zener shunt regulator Zener diode Zener shunt regulator Photodiode Light emitting diode Solar cells Solved problems Questions 4 BJTs and FETs Introduction Bipolar junction transistor Physical structure and modes of operation Principle of operation of n-p-n transistor Relation between Ic,Ib andIb Input and output characteristics of bipolar transistors Circuit symbols and current conventions Biasing of BJT and amplifier action Fixed of Bias circuit Bias stabilization Self-bias circuit Stability factors Bias design of a well-stabilized circuit Junction field-effect transistor Physical structure of a JEET Principle of operation Current voltage characteristics of a JEFT Bias design of JEFT Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor Physical structure of a MOSFET Operation of enhancement-type MOSFET Operation of depletion-type MOSFET Current voltage characteristics of a MOSFET Complementary MOSFET Solved problems Questions 5 Transistor biasing and small signal amplifiers Introduction Basic features of an amplifier Biasing of an amplifier Amplifier gain Input and output resistance Signal handling capacity Frequency response and bandwidth Amplifier classifications Small signal amplifier Voltage signal vs current signal Large signal or power amplifer Small signal common emitter amplifier Coupling and bypass capacitors Graphical analysis of small signal CE amplifier Linearity and distortion Small signal ac equivalent circuit Small signal transistor models Hybrid parameter model Transistor re model Hybrid –model Amplifier analysis using small signal models Amplifier analysis using re model-mid-frequency gain Low-frequency response of CE amplifier High-frequency cut-off due to device limitation Small signal common collector (CC) amplifier Mid –frequency gain Input and output impedance Small signal JFET and MOSFET amplifier JEET amplifier Enhancement MOSFET amplifier Solved problems Chapter-6 Feedback amplifiers and oscillators Introduction Feedback principle Advantages of negative feedback amplifiers Gain stability Noise reduction Bandwidth enhancement Improvement in linearity and signal handling capacity Feedback amplifier Feedback amplifier topologies Negative feedback amplifier circuits Oscillators Classification of oscillators Principle of sinusoidal feedback oscillation RC phase shift oscillators Wien-bridge oscillators High frequency LC oscillators Non-sinusoidal oscillators Solved problems Questions Chapter -7 Operational amplifiers Introduction Differential amplifier Circuit configurations Common –mode rejection ratio Dual-input balanced-output differential amplifier Voltage gain, input and output resistance Constant current bias Operational amplifier Block diagram representation Schematic symbol and pin configuration The Ideal op-amp Virtual ground concept Parameters of op-amp Amplifiers using operational amplifier Inverting amplifier Non –inverting amplifier The summing amplifier The difference amplifier The buffer amplifier Linear circuit applications of operational amplifier Voltage-to-current and current –to-voltage converter Integrator Differentiator Filter and oscillator applications of op-amp Active filters Oscillators Solved problems Questions 8 Digital logic and combinational circuits Introduction Binary number systems and codes Binary-to-decimal conversion Decimal-to-binary conversion Hexadecimal and octal number system Binary coded decimal (BCD) code Basic logic gates and truth tables OR operation AND operation NOT operation NAND operation NOR operation Exclusive –OR (XOR) operation Boolean algebra and De morgan’s theorem Booleah laws Duality theorem De morgan’s theorems Universality of NAND and NOR gates Logic circuits Sum-of-products method Product-of sums method Simplification of Boolean expressions Designing combinational logic networks Implementation of logic gates BJT inverter (NOT gate) using transistor switch Diode logic Resistor transistor logic (RTL) NOR gate Diode logic Resistor transistor logic (RTL) NOR gate Diode transistor logic (DTL) NAND gate Transistor-transistor logic (ITL) NAND gate NMOS inverter and logic gates CMOS inverter and logic gates Digital arithmetic Addition of binary numbers Subtraction of binary numbers Multiplication of binary numbers Binary division The arithmetic logic unit Solved problems Questions 9 Sequential logic circuits Introduction Flip –flop Master-slave SR flip-flop JK flip-flop Master-slave SR flip-flop JK flip-flop Master –slave JK flip-flop D flip-flop Registers Types of shirt registers Serial-parallel data transfer Right –shift left-shift register Counters Asynchronous (ripple) counter Non-binary counter BCD decade counter Decoding a counter The 555 timer Astable multivibrator Questions Chapter -10 Analog –to-digital-to –analog conversion Introduction Basic principles of analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion Methods of analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion Digital-ramp ADC Successive-approximation ADC Specifications of analog-to-digital converters Methods of digital-to –analog conversion Binary-weighted resistor D/A converter Resistor ladder D/A converter Specifications for D/A converter Questions Chapter-11 Data acquisition systems Introduction Principles of multiplexing Sample-and-hold circuit Multichannel data logging system Questions 12 Memory systems Introduction Memory parameters Classification and basic function of memory devices Memory classification Basic functions of memory devices Memory addressing and data buses Read-only memories Organization of a simple diode matrix of ROM Programmable read-only memory Erasable programmable ROM Electrically erasable prom Flash memory Applications of ROMs Random-access memory Organization of a RAM chip Static RAM CELL MOS dynamic RAM cell Solved problems Questions Chapter-13 Microcomputers and microprocessors Introduction Evolution of microprocessor chips Microprocessor architecture Arithmetic and logic unit Register array Timing and control unit System buses Working of microprocessor Microprocessor programming Low-level languages High- level languages Operating systems Microprocessor peripherals and interfacing Common peripherals Interfacing Microcontrollers Microprocessor application examples Recent advances in microprocessor architecture Questions Chapter-14 Communication systems Introduction to analog communications Modulation schemes Amplitude modulation Frequency modulation Phase modulation Amplitude and frequency modulation: A comparison Demodulation schemes Demodulation principle AM detectors FM detectors Introduction to digital communications Digital system block design Analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog conversions Error-detection and digital-encoding system Questions Chapter-15 Fiber optics and the information age Introduction to optical fiber Advantages and disadvantages of optical fiber Evolution of optical fiber Propagation and loss mechanism in optical fiber Manufacture of optical fiber Sources and detectors for optical communication Light-emitting diodes Semiconductor lasers Operational parameters of lasers as optical sources General theory of optical detectors Photo detectors and integrated optic receiver Fiber optics in communication Optical communication systems Coherent optical communication systems Broadband network integration Multiplexing and de-multiplexing Applications of fiber optic communication Optoelectronics and the information age Optical fiber-A media for information transmission Future direction of technological advancements Questions Chapter-16 Fundamentals of information technology Introduction Storage media, database management and data mining Storage media Database management system Distributed database Data warehouse Data mining Computer networks Network services Network functions and topologies ISDN and ATM technology Network security Multimedia: applications and challenges Components of multimedia Challenges in multimedia Internet and web technology History of internet What is internet and how does it work Internet addresses Internet services and resources World Wide Web technology Electronic commerce What is E-commerce? How E-commerce works? Electronic data interchange E-commerce over the internet E-commerce in India E-commerce security Internet security and ethics Security issues Legal issues Professional ethical issues Technological and social issues of IT Technology issues Social issues Questions Bibliography
BASIC ELECTRONICS
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements
1 An introduction to electronics
Introduction
A brief history of electronics
Transducers
Signals and frequency spectrum
Functional building blocks and electronic systems
Questions
2 Semiconductors, materials and junction diodes
Classification of solids
Atomic structure and energy levels
Energy levels
Extrinsic semiconductors
Conduction in metals and semiconductors
Conduction in metals
Conduction in semiconductors
Semiconductors diode
Diode under forward bias condition
Diode under reverse bias condition
Current-voltage characteristics of a p-n junction diode
Diode breakdown
Diode resistance
Circuit model of a p-n junction diode
The Ideal-diode model
The constant-voltage-drop model
Piecewise-linear model
Solved problems
3 Junction diodes and their applications
DC power supply
Rectifier circuits
The half-wave rectifier
The full-wave rectifier
The bridge rectifier
Rectifier with a shunt capacitor fitter
Rectifier with zener shunt regulator
Zener diode
Zener shunt regulator
Photodiode
Light emitting diode
Solar cells
4 BJTs and FETs
Bipolar junction transistor
Physical structure and modes of operation
Principle of operation of n-p-n transistor
Relation between Ic,Ib andIb
Input and output characteristics of bipolar transistors
Circuit symbols and current conventions
Biasing of BJT and amplifier action
Fixed of Bias circuit
Bias stabilization
Self-bias circuit
Stability factors
Bias design of a well-stabilized circuit
Junction field-effect transistor
Physical structure of a JEET
Principle of operation
Current voltage characteristics of a JEFT
Bias design of JEFT
Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor
Physical structure of a MOSFET
Operation of enhancement-type MOSFET
Operation of depletion-type MOSFET
Current voltage characteristics of a MOSFET
Complementary MOSFET
5 Transistor biasing and small signal amplifiers
Basic features of an amplifier
Biasing of an amplifier
Amplifier gain
Input and output resistance
Signal handling capacity
Frequency response and bandwidth
Amplifier classifications
Small signal amplifier
Voltage signal vs current signal
Large signal or power amplifer
Small signal common emitter amplifier
Coupling and bypass capacitors
Graphical analysis of small signal CE amplifier
Linearity and distortion
Small signal ac equivalent circuit
Small signal transistor models
Hybrid parameter model
Transistor re model
Hybrid –model
Amplifier analysis using small signal models
Amplifier analysis using re model-mid-frequency gain
Low-frequency response of CE amplifier
High-frequency cut-off due to device limitation
Small signal common collector (CC) amplifier
Mid –frequency gain
Input and output impedance
Small signal JFET and MOSFET amplifier
JEET amplifier
Enhancement MOSFET amplifier
Chapter-6 Feedback amplifiers and oscillators
Feedback principle
Advantages of negative feedback amplifiers
Gain stability
Noise reduction
Bandwidth enhancement
Improvement in linearity and signal handling capacity
Feedback amplifier
Feedback amplifier topologies
Negative feedback amplifier circuits
Oscillators
Classification of oscillators
Principle of sinusoidal feedback oscillation
RC phase shift oscillators
Wien-bridge oscillators
High frequency LC oscillators
Non-sinusoidal oscillators
Chapter -7 Operational amplifiers
Differential amplifier
Circuit configurations
Common –mode rejection ratio
Dual-input balanced-output differential amplifier
Voltage gain, input and output resistance
Constant current bias
Operational amplifier
Block diagram representation
Schematic symbol and pin configuration
The Ideal op-amp
Virtual ground concept
Parameters of op-amp
Amplifiers using operational amplifier
Inverting amplifier
Non –inverting amplifier
The summing amplifier
The difference amplifier
The buffer amplifier
Linear circuit applications of operational amplifier
Voltage-to-current and current –to-voltage converter
Integrator
Differentiator
Filter and oscillator applications of op-amp
Active filters
8 Digital logic and combinational circuits
Binary number systems and codes
Binary-to-decimal conversion
Decimal-to-binary conversion
Hexadecimal and octal number system
Binary coded decimal (BCD) code
Basic logic gates and truth tables
OR operation
AND operation
NOT operation
NAND operation
NOR operation
Exclusive –OR (XOR) operation
Boolean algebra and De morgan’s theorem
Booleah laws
Duality theorem
De morgan’s theorems
Universality of NAND and NOR gates
Logic circuits
Sum-of-products method
Product-of sums method
Simplification of Boolean expressions
Designing combinational logic networks
Implementation of logic gates
BJT inverter (NOT gate) using transistor switch
Diode logic
Resistor transistor logic (RTL) NOR gate
Diode transistor logic (DTL) NAND gate
Transistor-transistor logic (ITL) NAND gate
NMOS inverter and logic gates
CMOS inverter and logic gates
Digital arithmetic
Addition of binary numbers
Subtraction of binary numbers
Multiplication of binary numbers
Binary division
The arithmetic logic unit
9 Sequential logic circuits
Flip –flop
Master-slave SR flip-flop
JK flip-flop
Master –slave JK flip-flop
D flip-flop
Registers
Types of shirt registers
Serial-parallel data transfer
Right –shift left-shift register
Counters
Asynchronous (ripple) counter
Non-binary counter
BCD decade counter
Decoding a counter
The 555 timer
Astable multivibrator
Chapter -10 Analog –to-digital-to –analog conversion
Basic principles of analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion
Methods of analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion
Digital-ramp ADC
Successive-approximation ADC
Specifications of analog-to-digital converters
Methods of digital-to –analog conversion
Binary-weighted resistor D/A converter
Resistor ladder D/A converter
Specifications for D/A converter
Chapter-11 Data acquisition systems
Principles of multiplexing
Sample-and-hold circuit
Multichannel data logging system
12 Memory systems
Memory parameters
Classification and basic function of memory devices
Memory classification
Basic functions of memory devices
Memory addressing and data buses
Read-only memories
Organization of a simple diode matrix of ROM
Programmable read-only memory
Erasable programmable ROM
Electrically erasable prom
Flash memory
Applications of ROMs
Random-access memory
Organization of a RAM chip
Static RAM CELL
MOS dynamic RAM cell
Chapter-13 Microcomputers and microprocessors
Evolution of microprocessor chips
Microprocessor architecture
Arithmetic and logic unit
Register array
Timing and control unit
System buses
Working of microprocessor
Microprocessor programming
Low-level languages
High- level languages
Operating systems
Microprocessor peripherals and interfacing
Common peripherals
Interfacing
Microcontrollers
Microprocessor application examples
Recent advances in microprocessor architecture
Chapter-14 Communication systems
Introduction to analog communications
Modulation schemes
Amplitude modulation
Frequency modulation
Phase modulation
Amplitude and frequency modulation: A comparison
Demodulation schemes
Demodulation principle
AM detectors
FM detectors
Introduction to digital communications
Digital system block design
Analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog conversions
Error-detection and digital-encoding system
Chapter-15 Fiber optics and the information age
Introduction to optical fiber
Advantages and disadvantages of optical fiber
Evolution of optical fiber
Propagation and loss mechanism in optical fiber
Manufacture of optical fiber
Sources and detectors for optical communication
Light-emitting diodes
Semiconductor lasers
Operational parameters of lasers as optical sources
General theory of optical detectors
Photo detectors and integrated optic receiver
Fiber optics in communication
Optical communication systems
Coherent optical communication systems
Broadband network integration
Multiplexing and de-multiplexing
Applications of fiber optic communication
Optoelectronics and the information age
Optical fiber-A media for information transmission
Future direction of technological advancements
Chapter-16 Fundamentals of information technology
Storage media, database management and data mining
Storage media
Database management system
Distributed database
Data warehouse
Data mining
Computer networks
Network services
Network functions and topologies
ISDN and ATM technology
Network security
Multimedia: applications and challenges
Components of multimedia
Challenges in multimedia
Internet and web technology
History of internet
What is internet and how does it work
Internet addresses
Internet services and resources
World Wide Web technology
Electronic commerce
What is E-commerce?
How E-commerce works?
Electronic data interchange
E-commerce over the internet
E-commerce in India
E-commerce security
Internet security and ethics
Security issues
Legal issues
Professional ethical issues
Technological and social issues of IT
Technology issues
Social issues
Bibliography
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