ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION Contents Foreword Preface Chapter-1 Measurements and instruments Introduction Terminology Advantages of instrumentation systems Block schematics of measuring systems Other systems Objectives of measurement Comparison between analog and digital instruments Factors for the selection of analog and digital equipments Performance characteristics Definitions Significant figures Dynamic characteristics Types of errors Gross errors Systematic errors Random errors Statistical analysis Probability of errors and Gaussian curve Measurement standards Suspension galvanometer D’ Arsonval movement Taut-band suspension Temperature compensation Shunt resistor Ayrton shunt Direct current meters D’ arsonval meter movement used in DC voltmeters Ammeter loading effect DC voltmeters Multirange voltmeter Ohmmeter Series-type obmmeter Shunt-type obmmeter D’ arsonval meter movement used in obhmmeter Multiple range obmmeters Electrolyte capacitor leakage tests For non-electrolyte capacitors Multimeter Alternating current-indicating instruments Electrodynamometer Rectifier-type instruments Meter protection Extension of range Frequency compensation Electronic voltmeter Electronic voltmeter Average reading voltmeter Peak reading voltmeter Peak-to-peak detector DC meter with amplifier Chopper-stabilised amplifier AC voltmeter using rectifiers True RMS-responding voltmeter Balanced bridge voltmeter Advantages Disadvantages Transistor voltmeter Electronic multimeter Resistance ranges AC current measurement Differential voltmeter Differential amplifier Alternating current instruments D’ arsonval meter movement for AC circuit Modified circuit for AC measurements D’arsonval meter movement circuit Electrodynamometer movement Transfer instruments Iron vane-meter movement Thermocouple meter Constant voltage source Constant current source Volt box Factors to be considered in the selection of an analog voltmeter Digital voltmeters General specifications Ramp-type DVM Typical case Digit display Pico ammeter Applications Low-current ammeter applications Wafer-level photodiode testing Monitoring and control of focused ion beam currents High-resistance measurements Summary 2 Waveform generators Introduction Considerations in choosing an oscillator or signal generator Sine wave generator Oscillator circuit Attenuator Frequency-synthesized signal generator Sweep-frequency generator Pulse and square wave generator Function generator Arbitrary waveform generator Applications Video signal generator Summary 3 Signal analysers Introduction Wave analyser AF wave analyser High-frequency wave analyser Frequency mixers Harmonic distortion Tunable selective circuit Disadvantages Heterodyne wave analyser Fundamental suppression method of distortion measurement Heterodyne wave analyser Applications of wave analyser Tuned circuit harmonic analyser Heterodyne harmonic analyser or wavemeter Fundamental suppression harmonic distortion analyser Spectrum analyser Characteristics of a spectrum analyser Applications of a spectrum analyser Basic spectrum analyser Factors to be considered in a spectrum analyser Low-frequency spectrum analyser Applications Power analyser Communications signal analyser Logic analysers Network monitoring system System architecture Features Applications Capacitance-voltage analysers Oscillators Considerations in choosing an oscillator Summary 4 Oscilloscopes Introduction Cathode ray oscilloscope Block diagram of a CRO Cathode ray tube Graticules Electrostatics deflection sensitivity Design criteria Different controls in a CRO How to operate a CRO Time base generators Time base circuits Triggered mode Free-running mode Synchronization of the sweep circuit Types of CROS Sections of CRTs Deflection sensitivity equation Neon time base circuit Frequency of neon time base Neon lamp Free-running mode of CRO Using CRO in triggered mode Automode of sweep Normal mode Time base circuit for a general-purpose CRO Synchronization issues Line synchronization Lissajous figures Types of CRO probes Direct probe High-impedance probe Detector probe High-voltage probe High-frequency CRO considerations Delay lines in CROs Lumped parameter delay line Distributed parameter delay line Applications of CRO Summary 5 Special types of CROs Special types of oscilloscopes Dual beam CRO Dual trace CRO Sampling oscilloscope Sampling oscilloscopes-vertical and time base Sampling vertical Sampling time base Storage oscilloscopes Mesh storage Variable persistence Phosphor storage Phosphor characteristics Persistence of phosphor materials CRO subsystems Digital storage CRO CRO probes Frequency/period-timer/counter circuit Frequency measurement Period measurement Advantages Errors in frequency /period measurements Errors because of crystal stability Universal counters Extending the range of frequency counters Glossary The ABC’s of oscilloscopes Summary 6 DC and AC bridges Introduction DC bridges Wheatstone bridge Operation Measurement errors Thevenin’s equivalent circuit Kelvin Bridge Kelvin double bridge Applications Strain gauge bridge circuit Kelvin bridge Kelvin double bridge Applications Strain gauge bridge circuit AC bridges General form of bridge circuit Maxwell bridge Phasor diagram for the Maxwell bridge Hay bridge Phasor diagram for Hay Bridge Schering Bridge Phasor diagram for the when bridge Anderson Bridge Resonance bridge Similar Angle Bridge Radio frequency bridge Wagner’s ground connection Twin-T null network Bridged-T network Dectectors for AC bridges Phasor diagrams Recorders Introduction Strip-chart recorders Galvanometric recorders Sensitivity Transient response Pen-driving mechanism Other features Servo recorders Servo balancing potentiometric recorder Characteristics of typical servo recorders Oscillographic recorders Magnetic type recorders Direct AM recording Frequency modulation recording Recorders X-Y recorders Self-balancing potentiometers Working of a servotype motor Chopper Servotype X-Y recorders Y-scale Galvanometer oscillographs Applications Summary 7 Transducers Introduction Examples Classification of transducers Active and passive transducers Factors that affect the performance of a transducer Applications Force and displacement transducers Potentiometer Potentiometer Potentiometric transducers Loading effect on a potentiometer Resolution Linear potentiometers Non-linear potentiometers Noise Resistance strain gauges Bonded-type strain gauges Filament construction Materials of the filament wire Base carrier material Strain gauge cements Temperature effect on strain gauges Measurement of strain Strain gauge circuitry The ballast circuit The wheastone bridges circuit Circuit for calibration Mounting of strain gauges Commercial strain-measuring 8 Other types of transducers Introduction Resistance thermometers Self heating Advantages of wire resistance thermometers Disadvantages Semiconducting-resistance temperature transducers Circuit employed Advantages Disadvantages Hot wire anemometer Constant current type Measurement of direction of average flow Other variable resistance transducers Contact pressure transducer Humidity measurement Light Variable inductance transducers Linear variable differential transformer Applications of LVDT LVDT load cells Synchros Variable reluctance accelerometer Microsyn Temperature measurement Electric methods Electrical methods Thermocouples Thermocouple junction Thermocouple insulation Soldered ,drawn, or rolled sheatched thermocouple construction Disposable-tip thermocouples Homogeneity of thermocouple wires Installation of thermocouples Cold junction compensation Resistance thermometry Platinum resistance thermometers Special resistance thermometer Performance and testing procedure Insulation resistance Vibration resistance Thermostors Thermistor construction techniques Thermistor performance characteristics Applications of thermistor Sensistors Digital temperature-sensing system Miscellaneous transducers Flow measurements Ultrasonic flow meters Electromagnetic flow meter Theory of head flow meters Various tap connections Advantages and limitations Characteristics of head flow meters Area flow meters Rotameters Piston-type area meter Laser Doppler anemometer Positive displacement meters Basic requirement meters Nutating piston meters Rotating meters Oscillating piston meters Magnetic flow meter Flow meter requirements Variable capacitance transducers Practical capacitor pickups Feedback-capacitor pickups Carbon microphone Circuitry for capacitance transducers Frequency-modulating oscillator circuit Circuits using DC excitation AC bridges for amplitude modulation Pulse width-modulating circuit Piezoelectric transducer Materials Equivalent circuit Piezoelectric coefficients Modes of deformation Multiple arrangements Bimorphs Bimorph twisters General form of piezoelectric transducers Available typical piezoelectric transducers Shock accelerometer Environmental effects Magnetostrictive transducers Magnetostrictive materials Practical forms of transducers Magnetostrictive torque transducers Errors Temperature Variation of supply voltage Eddy currents Input impedance Liquid-level measurement Direct methods Indirect liquid-level measurement Capacitance-level gauge Ultrasonic-level gauge Measurement of humidity and moisture Photoconductive cells Photo pulse pickup Digital encoders and encoder transducers Shaft position encoders Encoder transducers Fibre optic displacement transducer Absolute motion devices Measurement of velocity Translational velocity transducer moving coil pickup DC tachometer generators for rotary velocity measurement AC tachogenerator for rotary velocity measurement Force measurements Balance Elastic force devices Electromechanical methods Measurement of pressure Moderate pressure measurement Manometers Elastic transducers High-pressure measurement Low-pressure measurement Thermal conductivity gauge or pirani gauge Temperature measurements Data acquisition systems Summary Appendix A Index
ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION
Contents
Foreword
Preface
Chapter-1 Measurements and instruments
Introduction
Terminology
Advantages of instrumentation systems
Block schematics of measuring systems
Other systems
Objectives of measurement
Comparison between analog and digital instruments
Factors for the selection of analog and digital equipments
Performance characteristics
Definitions
Significant figures
Dynamic characteristics
Types of errors
Gross errors
Systematic errors
Random errors
Statistical analysis
Probability of errors and Gaussian curve
Measurement standards
Suspension galvanometer
D’ Arsonval movement
Taut-band suspension
Temperature compensation
Shunt resistor
Ayrton shunt
Direct current meters
D’ arsonval meter movement used in DC voltmeters
Ammeter loading effect
DC voltmeters
Multirange voltmeter
Ohmmeter
Series-type obmmeter
Shunt-type obmmeter
D’ arsonval meter movement used in obhmmeter
Multiple range obmmeters
Electrolyte capacitor leakage tests
For non-electrolyte capacitors
Multimeter
Alternating current-indicating instruments
Electrodynamometer
Rectifier-type instruments
Meter protection
Extension of range
Frequency compensation
Electronic voltmeter
Average reading voltmeter
Peak reading voltmeter
Peak-to-peak detector
DC meter with amplifier
Chopper-stabilised amplifier
AC voltmeter using rectifiers
True RMS-responding voltmeter
Balanced bridge voltmeter
Advantages
Disadvantages
Transistor voltmeter
Electronic multimeter
Resistance ranges
AC current measurement
Differential voltmeter
Differential amplifier
Alternating current instruments
D’ arsonval meter movement for AC circuit
Modified circuit for AC measurements
D’arsonval meter movement circuit
Electrodynamometer movement
Transfer instruments
Iron vane-meter movement
Thermocouple meter
Constant voltage source
Constant current source
Volt box
Factors to be considered in the selection of an analog voltmeter
Digital voltmeters
General specifications
Ramp-type DVM
Typical case
Digit display
Pico ammeter
Applications
Low-current ammeter applications
Wafer-level photodiode testing
Monitoring and control of focused ion beam currents
High-resistance measurements
Summary
2 Waveform generators
Considerations in choosing an oscillator or signal generator
Sine wave generator
Oscillator circuit
Attenuator
Frequency-synthesized signal generator
Sweep-frequency generator
Pulse and square wave generator
Function generator
Arbitrary waveform generator
Video signal generator
3 Signal analysers
Wave analyser
AF wave analyser
High-frequency wave analyser
Frequency mixers
Harmonic distortion
Tunable selective circuit
Heterodyne wave analyser
Fundamental suppression method of distortion measurement
Applications of wave analyser
Tuned circuit harmonic analyser
Heterodyne harmonic analyser or wavemeter
Fundamental suppression harmonic distortion analyser
Spectrum analyser
Characteristics of a spectrum analyser
Applications of a spectrum analyser
Basic spectrum analyser
Factors to be considered in a spectrum analyser
Low-frequency spectrum analyser
Power analyser
Communications signal analyser
Logic analysers
Network monitoring system
System architecture
Features
Capacitance-voltage analysers
Oscillators
Considerations in choosing an oscillator
4 Oscilloscopes
Cathode ray oscilloscope
Block diagram of a CRO
Cathode ray tube
Graticules
Electrostatics deflection sensitivity
Design criteria
Different controls in a CRO
How to operate a CRO
Time base generators
Time base circuits
Triggered mode
Free-running mode
Synchronization of the sweep circuit
Types of CROS
Sections of CRTs
Deflection sensitivity equation
Neon time base circuit
Frequency of neon time base
Neon lamp
Free-running mode of CRO
Using CRO in triggered mode
Automode of sweep
Normal mode
Time base circuit for a general-purpose CRO
Synchronization issues
Line synchronization
Lissajous figures
Types of CRO probes
Direct probe
High-impedance probe
Detector probe
High-voltage probe
High-frequency CRO considerations
Delay lines in CROs
Lumped parameter delay line
Distributed parameter delay line
Applications of CRO
5 Special types of CROs
Special types of oscilloscopes
Dual beam CRO
Dual trace CRO
Sampling oscilloscope
Sampling oscilloscopes-vertical and time base
Sampling vertical
Sampling time base
Storage oscilloscopes
Mesh storage
Variable persistence
Phosphor storage
Phosphor characteristics
Persistence of phosphor materials
CRO subsystems
Digital storage CRO
CRO probes
Frequency/period-timer/counter circuit
Frequency measurement
Period measurement
Errors in frequency /period measurements
Errors because of crystal stability
Universal counters
Extending the range of frequency counters
Glossary
The ABC’s of oscilloscopes
6 DC and AC bridges
DC bridges
Wheatstone bridge
Operation
Measurement errors
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
Kelvin Bridge
Kelvin double bridge
Strain gauge bridge circuit
Kelvin bridge
AC bridges
General form of bridge circuit
Maxwell bridge
Phasor diagram for the Maxwell bridge
Hay bridge
Phasor diagram for Hay Bridge
Schering Bridge
Phasor diagram for the when bridge
Anderson Bridge
Resonance bridge
Similar Angle Bridge
Radio frequency bridge
Wagner’s ground connection
Twin-T null network
Bridged-T network
Dectectors for AC bridges
Phasor diagrams
Recorders
Strip-chart recorders
Galvanometric recorders
Sensitivity
Transient response
Pen-driving mechanism
Other features
Servo recorders
Servo balancing potentiometric recorder
Characteristics of typical servo recorders
Oscillographic recorders
Magnetic type recorders
Direct AM recording
Frequency modulation recording
X-Y recorders
Self-balancing potentiometers
Working of a servotype motor
Chopper
Servotype X-Y recorders
Y-scale
Galvanometer oscillographs
7 Transducers
Examples
Classification of transducers
Active and passive transducers
Factors that affect the performance of a transducer
Force and displacement transducers
Potentiometer
Potentiometric transducers
Loading effect on a potentiometer
Resolution
Linear potentiometers
Non-linear potentiometers
Noise
Resistance strain gauges
Bonded-type strain gauges
Filament construction
Materials of the filament wire
Base carrier material
Strain gauge cements
Temperature effect on strain gauges
Measurement of strain
Strain gauge circuitry
The ballast circuit
The wheastone bridges circuit
Circuit for calibration
Mounting of strain gauges
Commercial strain-measuring
8 Other types of transducers
Resistance thermometers
Self heating
Advantages of wire resistance thermometers
Semiconducting-resistance temperature transducers
Circuit employed
Hot wire anemometer
Constant current type
Measurement of direction of average flow
Other variable resistance transducers
Contact pressure transducer
Humidity measurement
Light
Variable inductance transducers
Linear variable differential transformer
Applications of LVDT
LVDT load cells
Synchros
Variable reluctance accelerometer
Microsyn
Temperature measurement
Electric methods
Electrical methods
Thermocouples
Thermocouple junction
Thermocouple insulation
Soldered ,drawn, or rolled sheatched thermocouple construction
Disposable-tip thermocouples
Homogeneity of thermocouple wires
Installation of thermocouples
Cold junction compensation
Resistance thermometry
Platinum resistance thermometers
Special resistance thermometer
Performance and testing procedure
Insulation resistance
Vibration resistance
Thermostors
Thermistor construction techniques
Thermistor performance characteristics
Applications of thermistor
Sensistors
Digital temperature-sensing system
Miscellaneous transducers
Flow measurements
Ultrasonic flow meters
Electromagnetic flow meter
Theory of head flow meters
Various tap connections
Advantages and limitations
Characteristics of head flow meters
Area flow meters
Rotameters
Piston-type area meter
Laser Doppler anemometer
Positive displacement meters
Basic requirement meters
Nutating piston meters
Rotating meters
Oscillating piston meters
Magnetic flow meter
Flow meter requirements
Variable capacitance transducers
Practical capacitor pickups
Feedback-capacitor pickups
Carbon microphone
Circuitry for capacitance transducers
Frequency-modulating oscillator circuit
Circuits using DC excitation
AC bridges for amplitude modulation
Pulse width-modulating circuit
Piezoelectric transducer
Materials
Equivalent circuit
Piezoelectric coefficients
Modes of deformation
Multiple arrangements
Bimorphs
Bimorph twisters
General form of piezoelectric transducers
Available typical piezoelectric transducers
Shock accelerometer
Environmental effects
Magnetostrictive transducers
Magnetostrictive materials
Practical forms of transducers
Magnetostrictive torque transducers
Errors
Temperature
Variation of supply voltage
Eddy currents
Input impedance
Liquid-level measurement
Direct methods
Indirect liquid-level measurement
Capacitance-level gauge
Ultrasonic-level gauge
Measurement of humidity and moisture
Photoconductive cells
Photo pulse pickup
Digital encoders and encoder transducers
Shaft position encoders
Encoder transducers
Fibre optic displacement transducer
Absolute motion devices
Measurement of velocity
Translational velocity transducer moving coil pickup
DC tachometer generators for rotary velocity measurement
AC tachogenerator for rotary velocity measurement
Force measurements
Balance
Elastic force devices
Electromechanical methods
Measurement of pressure
Moderate pressure measurement
Manometers
Elastic transducers
High-pressure measurement
Low-pressure measurement
Thermal conductivity gauge or pirani gauge
Temperature measurements
Data acquisition systems
Appendix A
Index
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